Experiments on turbocharger compressor acoustics

As turbocharging requirements raise to face an increasingly stricter environmental regulation of internal combustion engines, concerns regarding their acoustic emission become more pressing. Since downsized engines require higher boost pressures and lower mass flow rates, the turbocharger compressor is forced to work at more unstable regimes, where flow patterns become more complex and noise levels rise. This thesis aims to thus to investigate these issues, proposing methodologies to characterize the acoustic emission of turbocharger compressors and implementing them in different experiments with a special focus on the link between acoustic emission and flow behaviour at unstable conditions. A literature review is carried out in order to assess the state of the art principally regarding experimental techniques related to this issue but also including the latest developments in terms of understanding the flow characteristics through numerical simulations. Different methodologies are consequently proposed and implemented into a custom test rig inside an anechoic chamber as to experimentally measure and analyze the acoustic output of the compressor. From this measurement campaign a characterization of the noise spectral content across the compressor map is obtained and described, identifying different acoustical phenomena such as blade passing tonal noise, low frequency content associated to deep surge, higher frequency broadband ascribed to tip clearance interaction, and broadband noise in the plane wave range known as whoosh in the literature, of special concern for automotive manufacturers. This particular phenomenon is detected even at more stable conditions at higher flow rate, and rising in level as flow rate is diminished to the point of being masked by lower frequency content. After a validation of the selected procedure in realistic engine conditions, experimental data is compared against a numerical model of the compressor developed in a parallel work to assess its validity and propose different post-processing techniques to extract additional insights about the behaviour of the flow at different conditions, hinting at the main generation mechanism for whoosh being located at the compressor diffuser. Since numerical simulations predict a reduced amount of reversed unstable flow at conditions where whoosh noise is still measured, an experimental campaign is performed where detailed measures of local temperature near the compressor wheel are used to determine the evolution of reversed flow, with supplemental readings through pressure probes in the inducer and diffuser being used to link this evolution with the fluctuation of spectral content. Temperature results are also correlated with measurements of the velocity field through particle imaging, demonstrating a clear link between the reversed flow field and temperature readings. Different experimental campaigns are then described where modifications of the inlet geometry immediately upstream the compressor are performed in order to assess how the air flow presentation can influence acoustic performance. Geometries featuring reservoirs, nozzles and guide vanes are shown to potentially reduce noise levels. A 90º elbow parametric study is performed, demonstrating how the inner radius of the elbow influences circumferential temperature differences and noise levels, leading to the hypothesis of geometry influence on whoosh noise being related to air presentation changes that promote lower or higher growth of reversed backflow, which in turns carries upstream the spectral content being generated in the compressor diffuser.A medida que los requerimientos de turbocompresión aumentan para afrontar una regulación de los motores de combustión interna cada vez más estricta, la preocupación respecto a su emisión acústica se hace más acuciante. Debido a que motores de menor tamaño requieren mayores aumentos de presión y menores gastos másicos, el compresor del turbogrupo se ve forzado a trabajar en regímenes más inestables, los patrones de flujo se hacen más complejos y los niveles de ruido aumentan. Esta tesis tiene como objetivo investigar estas cuestiones, proponiendo metodologías para caracterizar la emisión acústica de compresores de turbogrupos, e implementándolas en diferentes experimentos enfocados especialmente en la relación entre emisión acústica y comportamiento del flujo en condiciones inestables. Por tanto, se lleva a cabo una revisión bibliográfica para evaluar el estado del arte, especialmente en lo concerniente a técnicas experimentales relacionadas con el problema, pero incluyendo también los últimos desarrollos en términos de comprensión de las características del flujo mediante simulaciones numéricas. Como resultado, diferentes metodologías se proponen e implementan en un banco de ensayo hecho a medida dentro de una cámara anecoica para medir y analizar la producción sonora del compresor. Mediante esta campaña de medida se obtiene y describe una caracterización acústica del contenido espectral del ruido a lo largo del mapa del compresor, identificando diferentes fenómenos sonoros tales como ruido tonal debido al paso de álabe, contenido de baja frecuencia asociado al bombeo profundo, contenido de banda ancha a alta frecuencia atribuido a la interacción del flujo en la holgura de punta de pala y ruido de banda ancha en el rango de onda plana, conocido como whoosh en la literatura y de especial interés para los fabricantes automovilísticos. Este fenómeno en concreto se detecta incluso a condiciones más estables de alto gasto másico, y aumenta de nivel a medida que el gasto disminuye hasta llegar a ser enmascarado por el aumento del contenido de baja frecuencia. Después de validar los procedimientos seleccionados en condiciones realistas de motor, se comparan los datos experimentales con un modelo numérico del compresor desarrollado en un trabajo paralelo a fin de evaluar su validez y proponer diferentes técnicas de postprocesado, con el objetivo de extraer información adicional acerca del comportamiento del flujo en diferentes condiciones, que sugieren que el mecanismo principal de generación de whoosh se encuentra localizado en el difusor del compresor. Se lleva a cabo una campaña experimental en la cual medidas detalladas de temperatura local cerca del rotor se usan para determinar la longitud del flujo inverso, con medidas suplementarias a través de sondas de presión usadas para relacionar esta evolución con la fluctuación de contenido espectral. Los resultados de temperatura se correlacionan también con medidas del campo de velocidad por imágenes de partículas, demostrando una clara relación entre el campo de flujo inverso y las medidas de temperatura. Se describen a continuación diferentes campañas experimentales en las cuales se llevaron a cabo modificaciones de la geometría de entrada inmediatamente aguas arriba del compresor con el fin de evaluar cómo la presentación del flujo puede influenciar el rendimiento acústico. Geometrías incluyendo remansos, toberas y álabes guía demuestran una reducción de los niveles de ruido. Se ha realizado un estudio paramétrico de un codo de 90º, mostrando que el radio del codo influye en la distribución circunferencial de temperatura y los niveles de ruido, llevando a la hipótesis de que la influencia de la geometría en el ruido de whoosh está relacionada con cambios en la presentación del aire que promueven menor o mayor reflujo, que a su vez convecta aguas arriba el contenido espectral generado en el difusor delA mesura que els requeriments de turbocompressió augmenten a fi d'afrontar una regulació dels motors de combustió interna cada vegada més estricta, la preocupació respecte a la seva emissió acústica es fa més urgent. Com que motors de dimensions més reduïdes requereixen majors augments de pressió i menors cabals màssics, el compressor del turbogrup es veu forçat a treballar a règims més inestables, els patrons de flux es fan més complexos, i els nivells de soroll augmenten. Aquesta tesi té com a objectiu investigar aquestes qüestions, proposant metodologies per a caracteritzar l'emissió acústica de compressors de turbogrups, implementant-les en diferents experiments enfocats especialment a la relació entre emissió acústica i comportament del flux en condicions inestables. Per tant, es duu a terme una revisió bibliogràfica per avaluar l'estat de l'art, especialment pel que fa a tècniques experimentals relacionades amb el problema, però incloent també els últims desenvolupaments en termes de comprensió de les característiques del flux mitjançant simulacions numèriques. Com a resultat, diferents metodologies es proposen i implementen en un banc d'assaig fet a mida dins d'una cambra anecoica per mesurar i analitzar la producció sonora del compressor. Mitjançant aquesta campanya de mesura s'obté i descriu una caracterització acústica del contingut espectral del soroll al llarg del mapa del compressor, identificant diferents fenòmens sonors com ara soroll tonal a causa del pas d'àlep, contingut de baixa freqüència associat al bombeig profund, contingut de banda ampla a alta freqüència atribuït a la interacció del flux en la folgança de punta de pala i soroll de banda ampla en el rang d'ona plana, conegut com a whoosh en la literatura i d'especial interès per als fabricants automobilístics. Aquest fenomen en concret es detecta fins i tot a condicions més estables d'alt cabal màssic, i augmenta de nivell a mesura que el cabal disminueix fins arribar a ser emmascarat per l'augment del contingut de baixa freqüència. Després de validar els procediments seleccionats en condicions realistes de motor, es comparen les dades experimentals amb un model numèric del compressor desenvolupat en un treball paral·lel a fi d'avaluar la seva validesa i proposar diferents tècniques de post-processat, amb l'objectiu d'extraure informació addicional sobre el comportament del flux en diferents condicions, que suggereixen que el mecanisme principal de generació de whoosh es troba localitzat al difusor del compressor. Pel fet que nombroses simulacions prediuen una quantitat reduïda de'inestable flux invers en condicions on el whoosh apareix en les mesures, es duu a terme una campanya experimental en la qual mesures detallades de temperatura local prop del rotor s'utilitzen per a determinar la longitud del flux invers, amb mesures suplementàries mitjançant sondes de pressió emprades per a relacionar aquesta evolució amb la fluctuació de contingut espectral. Els resultats de temperatura es correlacionen també amb mesures del camp de velocitat per imatges de partícules, demostrant una clara relació entre el camp de flux invers i les mesures de temperatura. Es descriuen a continuació diferents campanyes experimentals en les quals es van realitzar modificacions de la geometria d'entrada immediatament aigües dalt del compressor a fi d'avaluar com la presentació del flux pot influenciar el rendiment acústic. Geometries incloent volums, toveres i àleps guia demostren una reducció dels nivells de soroll. S'ha realitzat un estudi paramètric d'un colze de 90º, mostrant que el ràdio del colze influïx en la distribució circumferencial de temperatura i els nivells de soroll, donant suport a la hipòtesi de que la influència de la geometria en el soroll de whoosh està relacionada amb canvis en la presentació de l'aire que promouen menor o major reflux, que aleshores convecta aigües daGarcía Tíscar, J. (2017). Experiments on turbocharger compressor acoustics [Tesis doctoral]. Editorial Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/79552TESI

Numerical and experimental analysis of automotive turbocharger compressor aeroacoustics at different operating conditions

Centrifugal compressor aeroacoustics are analyzed by means of a three-dimensional CFD model. Three operating points at nominal compressor speed are simulated ranging from best efficiency point to near-surge conditions. Experimental measurements are obtained using a steady flow rig mounted on an anechoic chamber. URANS and DES predictions of compressor global variables and pressure spectra are compared against experimental measurements. Flow-induced noise increases as the operating point moves toward surge line. Stall at the suction side of the blades exists even for high mass flow conditions, causing a high frequency boundary layer oscillation. Low momentum cells rotating at the diffuser are found at points closer to surge, causing the so-called whoosh noise. Inducer rotating stall is also present at these conditions. Point closest to surge shows a rotating tornado-type vortex at the inducer, determining a moving low pressure region that increases low frequency noise content.The equipment used in this work has been partially supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad through grant no. TRA2012-36954 and by FEDER project funds "Dotacion de infraestructuras cientifico tecnicas para el Centro Integral de Mejora Energetica y Medioambiental de Sistemas de Transporte (CiMeT), (FEDER-ICTS-2012-06)" framed in the operational program of unique scientific and technical infrastructure of the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad. Part of the computational resources used in this work have been provided by Super computing Center of Universitat Politecnica de Valencia and are thus gratefully acknowledged.Broatch Meza, A.; Galindo, J.; Navarro García, R.; García Tíscar, J. (2016). Numerical and experimental analysis of automotive turbocharger compressor aeroacoustics at different operating conditions. International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow. 61B:245-255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2016.04.003S24525561

Acoustic characterization of automotive turbocompressors

The performance of different experimental techniques proposed in the literature for acoustic characterization was assessed through the study of the noise generated by the compressor of an automotive turbocharger under different working conditions in an engine test cell. The most critical restrictions of in-duct intensimetry methods regarding frequency limitations are presented and experimentally demonstrated. The results provided by those methods were correlated against a reference intensity probe. A beamforming method based on three-sensor-phased arrays appears to be the most reliable approach in the plane wave range, presenting higher accuracy than the more common two-microphone method and simple pressure level measurements. Also, preliminary results from a novel radiated noise quantification technique based on acoustic particle velocity are presented and discussed. The results indicate that further research on this topic is required.This work has been partially supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad through grant no. TRA2012-36954. The equipment used in this work has been partially supported by FEDER project funds "Dotacion de infraestructuras cientifico tecnicas para el Centro Integral de Mejora Energetica y Medioambiental de Sistemas de Transporte (CiMeT), (FEDER-ICTS-2012-06),'' framed in the operational program of unique scientific and technical infrastructure of the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad.Torregrosa, AJ.; Broatch Jacobi, JA.; Navarro García, R.; García Tíscar, J. (2015). Acoustic characterization of automotive turbocompressors. International Journal of Engine Research. 16(1):31-37. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468087414562866S313716

Improving the specific instrumental transversal skill of Aerospace Engineers through a lab experience

[EN] This paper proposes an educational methodology for the development of the specific instrumental soft skill in Aerospace Engineering degree students. This methodology uses an autonomous and active learning approach to measure, through two different techniques, the local flow velocities around a circular cylinder in a subsonic wind tunnel. The students are directly involved in the complete measuring procedure through practical sessions in a lab, applying directly Hot-Wire Anemometry (HWA) and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) techniques, and reporting the analysis of the results after the corresponding data processing. Results show that the proposed lab-based methodology is well received by the students whereas the objective evaluation demonstrates its potential to improve the specific instrumental soft skill acquisition.Novella Rosa, R.; García-Tíscar, J.; Micó Reche, C.; Gomez-Soriano, J. (2021). Improving the specific instrumental transversal skill of Aerospace Engineers through a lab experience. En Proceedings INNODOCT/20. International Conference on Innovation, Documentation and Education. Editorial Universitat Politècnica de València. 213-221. https://doi.org/10.4995/INN2020.2020.11892OCS21322

Experimental methodology for turbocompressor in-duct noise evaluation based on beamforming wave decomposition

An experimental methodology is proposed to assess the noise emission of centrifugal turbocompressors like those of automotive turbochargers. A step-by-step procedure is detailed, starting from the theoretical considerations of sound measurement in flow ducts and examining specific experimental setup guidelines and signal processing routines. Special care is taken regarding some limiting factors that adversely affect the measuring of sound intensity in ducts, namely calibration, sensor placement and frequency ranges and restrictions. In order to provide illustrative examples of the proposed techniques and results, the methodology has been applied to the acoustic evaluation of a small automotive turbocharger in a flow bench. Samples of raw pressure spectra, decomposed pressure waves, calibration results, accurate surge characterization and final compressor noise maps and estimated spectrograms are provided. The analysis of selected frequency bands successfully shows how different, known noise phenomena of particular interest such as mid-frequency "whoosh noise" and low-frequency surge onset are correlated with operating conditions of the turbocharger. Comparison against external inlet orifice intensity measurements shows good correlation and improvement with respect to alternative wave decomposition techniques.The equipment used in this work has been partially supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad through grant no. TRA2012-36954 and by FEDER project funds "Dotacion de infraestructuras cientifico-tecnicas para el Centro Integral de Mejora Energetica y Medioambiental de Sistemas de Transporte (CiMeT), (FEDER-ICTS-2012-06)" framed in the operational program of unique scientific and technical infrastructure of the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad. J. Garcia-Tiscar is partially supported through contract FPI-S2-2015-1530 of the Programa de Apoyo para la Investigacion y Desarrollo (PAID) of Universitat Politecnica de Valencia.Torregrosa, AJ.; Broatch Jacobi, JA.; Margot, X.; García Tíscar, J. (2016). Experimental methodology for turbocompressor in-duct noise evaluation based on beamforming wave decomposition. Journal of Sound and Vibration. 376:60-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2016.04.035S607137

On the use of gamification tools for blended learning approaches in Thermodynamics courses

[EN] During the last year 2020, education in European universities has suffered a challenging transformation from an established pedagogical model to a digital one. The face-to-face formal lectures have been replaced to on-line sessions and blended learning approaches. The courses related to the Thermodynamics subject of two Bachelor of Science Degrees (Mechanical Engineering and Automatic and Industrial Electronic Engineering) have been also adapted to the blended learning approach, in this case combining the use of screencast videos, interactive slides with comments, synchronous on-line lectures and tutorials, and virtual laboratories. This recent methodology has been demonstrated to be effective due to its flexibility and ubiquitous characteristics. However, one of the difficulties is tracking the engagement and the evolution of the students due to the reduced direct interaction between them and the instructors. Among the technological tools that are used to benefit the learning process of students, gamification tools have been demonstrated to be effective and positive for academic performance. The aim of this study is to implement and evaluate the effectiveness of the gamification in the Thermodynamics courses where the proposed blended learning approach is used. One of the goals is to identify the specific competences acquired by the students after watching the audio-visual content (videos and slides). For this purpose, a Kahoot was played before starting the on-line lecture (synchronous), and according to the score, the instructor could recognize the level of understanding of the concepts. Based on the results, the instructor was able to focus more on the weaker learning objectives, capturing their attention during the session. At the end of the session the Kahoot was played again to recognize if the concepts were consolidated during the lesson. The results show that the use of this gamification tool achieved high levels of engagement and improved the attention and participation of the students.This work has been done in the framework of the innovative teaching group EICE CONMAGIA promoted by the Instituto de Ciencias de la Educación.Bracho León, GC.; Martí-Aldaraví, P.; García Tíscar, J.; Gómez Soriano, J. (2022). On the use of gamification tools for blended learning approaches in Thermodynamics courses. En Proceedings INNODOCT/21. International Conference on Innovation, Documentation and Education. Editorial Universitat Politècnica de València. 75-82. https://doi.org/10.4995/INN2021.2021.13370758

Local flow measurements in a turbocharger compressor inlet

[EN] This paper describes an experimental study carried out with the objective of characterizing flow instabilities in turbocharger compressors, specially the distribution of the high-temperature compressed back flow that appears upstream of the impeller at marginal surge conditions. The inlet of a test compressor was fitted with linear and circumferential thermocouple arrays in order to measure the temperature distribution caused by this backflow, whose independence of duct wall temperature was validated through thermographic imaging. Miniaturized pressure probes at the inducer and diffuser showed how pressure spectra varied during the different operating conditions. In-duct acoustic intensity was measured in both the inlet and the outlet to investigate the correlation between a known super synchronous broadband issue known as whoosh noise and the backflow behaviour as characterized by local pressure and temperature. Analysis of the results points to inlet whoosh noise being boosted by this reversed flow but not caused by it, the source probably being located at or downstream of the compressor impeller.This work has been partially supported by Jaguar Land Rover Limited, Abbey Road, Whitley, Coventry CV3 4LF, UK. The equipment used in this work has been partially supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad through the grant no DPI2015-70464-R and by FEDER project funds “Dotaciön de infraestructuras científico técnicas para el Centro Integral de Mejora Energética y Medioambiental de Sistemas de Transporte (CiMeT), (FEDER-ICTS-2012-06)” framed in the operational program of unique scientific and technical infrastructure of the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad. J. García-Tíscar is partially supported through contract FPI-S2-2015-1530 of the Programa de Apoyo para la Investigación y Desarrollo (PAID) of Universitat Politécnica de Valéncia.Torregrosa, AJ.; Broatch, A.; Margot, XM.; García Tíscar, J.; Narvekar, Y.; Cheung, R. (2017). Local flow measurements in a turbocharger compressor inlet. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science. 88:542-553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2017.07.007S5425538

Simulations and measurements of automotive turbocharger compressor whoosh noise

Turbocharger noise has become a major concern in downsized automotive engine development. In this paper, the analysis is focused on the whoosh noise produced by the compressor when it is working near surge. A centrifugal compressor has been acoustically characterized on a turbocharger test rig mounted on an anechoic chamber. Three in-duct pressure signals forming a linear array are registered in order to obtain pressure components. In this way, meaningful pressure spectra and sound intensity level (SIL) compressor maps are obtained, showing an increase of SIL in the frequency window corresponding to whoosh noise. Besides, detached eddy simulations (DES) of the centrifugal compressor flow in two operating conditions near surge are performed. Good agreement is found between the experimental measurements and the CFD solutions in terms of predicted pressure spectra. Flow analysis is used to identify patterns responsible for the different features of the pressure spectra. At the simulated conditions, rotating instabilities in the compressor diffuser and inducer cause pressure oscillations in the frequency range of whoosh noise.The equipment used in this work has been partially supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad through grant no. TRA2012-36954 and by FEDER project funds "Dotacion de infraestructuras cientifico tecnicas para el Centro Integral de Mejora Energetica y Medioambiental de Sistemas de Transporte (CiMeT), (FEDER-ICTS-2012-06)" framed in the operational program of unique scientific and technical infrastructure of the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad.Broatch Jacobi, JA.; Galindo, J.; Navarro García, R.; García Tíscar, J.; Daglish, A.; Sharma, RK. (2015). Simulations and measurements of automotive turbocharger compressor whoosh noise. Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Mechanics. 9(1):12-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/19942060.2015.1004788S12209

Acoustic characteristics of a ported shroud turbocompressor operating at design conditions

[EN] In this article, the acoustic characterisation of a turbocharger compressor with ported shroud design is carried out through the numerical simulation of the system operating under design conditions of maximum isentropic efficiency. While ported shroud compressors have been proposed as a way to control the flow near unstable conditions in order to obtain a more stable operation and enhance deep surge margin, it is often assumed that the behaviour under stable design conditions is characterised by a smooth, non-detached flow that matches an equivalent standard compressor. Furthermore, research is scarce regarding the acoustic effects of the ported shroud addition, especially under the design conditions. To analyse the flow field evolution and its relation with the noise generation, spectral signatures using statistical and scale-resolving turbulence modelling methods are obtained after successfully validating the performance and acoustic predictions of the numerical model with experimental measurements. Propagation of the frequency content through the ducts has been estimated with the aid of pressure decomposition methods to enhance the content coming from the compressor. Expected acoustic phenomena such as `buzz-saw¿ tones, blade passing peaks and broadband noise are correctly identified in the modelled spectrum. Analysis of the flow behaviour in the ported shroud shows rotating structures through the slot that may impact the acoustic and vibration response. Further inspection of the pressure field through modal decomposition confirms the influence of the ported shroud cavity in noise generation and propagation, especially at lower frequencies, suggesting that further research should be carried out on the impact these flow enhancement solutions have on the noise emission of the turbocharger.The project was sponsored and supported by BorgWarner Turbo Systems and the Regional Growth Fund (RGF Grant Award 01.09.07.01/1789C). The authors would like to thank BorgWarner Turbo Systems for permission to publish the results presented in this article. The support of the HPC group at the University of Huddersfield is gratefully acknowledged.Sharma, S.; Broatch, A.; Garcia Tiscar, J.; Allport, JM.; Nickson, AK. (2020). Acoustic characteristics of a ported shroud turbocompressor operating at design conditions. 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