The evolution of policy enactment on gender-based violence in schools

This paper examines how policies and strategies to address school-related gender-based violence have evolved since 2000, when gender-based violence within education was largely invisible. Through an exploration of policy enactment in three countries, Liberia, South Africa and Brazil, it traces remarkable progress in policy, programmes and research. The analysis asks why, despite such achievements, there is little evidence that these policy enactments have succeeded in reducing violence. The case studies reveal disconnects in the ways violence is conceptualised and acted upon by policy actors, which inhibit effective action. The paper concludes that more attention is needed to the space between national and local policy enactments, and to tackling at national, district, school and community levels the norms and inequalities at the heart of gender-based violence

One Health for a changing world: new perspectives from Africa

The concept of One Health, which aims to drive improvements in human, animal and ecological health through an holistic approach, has been gaining increasing support and attention in recent years. While this concept has much appeal, there are few examples where it has been successfully put into practice. This Special Issue explores the challenges in African contexts, with papers looking at the complex interactions between ecosystems, diseases and poverty dynamics; at underlying social and political dimensions; at the potentials for integrative modelling; and at the changes in policy and practice required to realise a One Health approach. This introductory paper offers an overview of the 11 papers, coming from diverse disciplinary perspectives, that each explore how a One Health approach can work in a world of social, economic and environmental change

Bayesian model choice in cumulative link ordinal regression models

The use of the proportional odds (PO) model for ordinal regression is ubiquitous in the literature. If the assumption of parallel lines does not hold for the data, then an alternative is to specify a non-proportional odds (NPO) model, where the regression parameters are allowed to vary depending on the level of the response. However, it is often difficult to fit these models, and challenges regarding model choice and fitting are further compounded if there are a large number of explanatory variables. We make two contributions towards tackling these issues: firstly, we develop a Bayesian method for fitting these models, that ensures the stochastic ordering conditions hold for an arbitrary finite range of the explanatory variables, allowing NPO models to be fitted to any observed data set. Secondly, we use reversible-jump Markov chain Monte Carlo to allow the model to choose between PO and NPO structures for each explanatory variable, and show how variable selection can be incorporated. These methods can be adapted for any monotonic increasing link functions. We illustrate the utility of these approaches on novel data from a longitudinal study of individual-level risk factors affecting body condition score in a dog population in Zenzele, South Africa.TJM is supported by Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council grant number BB/I012192/1. MM is supported by a grant from the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) and the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA), with additional support from the Charles Slater Fund and the Jowett Fund. JW is supported by the Alborada Trust and the RAPIDD program of the Science and Technology Directorate, Department of Homeland Security and the Fogarty International Centre.This is the final version of the article. It was first available from International Society for Bayesian Analysis via http://dx.doi.org/10.1214/14-BA88

Dientamoeba fragilis : an emerging human pathogen

University of Technology, Sydney. Faculty of Science.Dientamoeba fragilis is a parasite of the human gastrointestinal tract that is often described as a cause of illness. Compared to other enteric protozoa of humans, information on D. fragilis is limited. Molecular studies on D. fragilis are particularly scarce and only three protein coding gene sequences are available for D. fragilis in Genbank. There is no published genome sequence for D. fragilis and knowledge on its metabolism, life cycle and mechanisms of pathogenicity is also lacking. Further research into these aspects of D. fragilis is warranted. Development of new diagnostic tests for D. fragilis has been a growing trend in recent years, though with a distinct focus on molecular diagnostics. Less attention has been paid to the development of antibody-based diagnostic tests for D. fragilis. While molecular assays are extremely sensitive and specific, antibody based assays are more applicable to routine diagnostic settings, mostly due to issues of cost and feasibility. Given the increasing importance of D. fragilis to human health, further research into the development of antibody-based diagnostic tests for D. fragilis is also warranted. This project was designed to address the shortcomings described previously. One major objective of this project was to sequence the transcriptome of D. fragilis (aim 2 of this project). This would dramatically increase the volume of molecular data available for D. fragilis and encourage future research on this organism. Another major objective was to develop polyclonal antibodies against a specific D. fragilis antigen which could be implemented in a diagnostic test (aim 3 of this project). To fulfil aims 2 and 3 of this project, long term cultures of D. fragilis would also be required to provide the necessary starting materials; D. fragilis RNA’s for sequencing and D. fragilis cells for the evaluation polyclonal antibodies. Therefore, the first objective was to improve current techniques for the cultivation of D. fragilis by evaluating various xenic culture systems for their ability to support D. fragilis growth (aim 1 of this project). Several media formulations were evaluated for their ability to support D. fragilis growth at various temperatures and atmospheric conditions. Different temperatures (from ambient room temperature to 42̊C) and various atmospheric conditions (aerobic, anaerobic and microaerophilic conditions) were also evaluated. Trophozoites were inoculated into fresh media under varying conditions and manual cell counts were performed daily to determine the media and conditions which supported optimal growth. Once optimal culture conditions were established, total RNA was extracted from culture sediments using TriSure reagent. As the culture systems employed were xenic (also containing a mixture of bacterial support flora), eukaryotic mRNA’s were enriched from total RNA extracts using oligo-(dT) cellulose chromatography. Purified eukaryotic mRNA’s were then subjected to next-generation sequencing. Upon assembly of the D. fragilis transcriptome, a suitable target protein was selected for polyclonal antibody development based on information obtained from the scientific literature. A homologue for this protein was identified in the D. fragilis transcriptome using blast searches. This nucleotide sequence then was translated into its amino acid sequence and immunogenic peptides were designed using this sequence as a template. Peptides were synthesised and conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanin for immunisation of rabbits. Anti-peptide antibodies were then purified from the resulting rabbit antisera by immunoaffinity chromatography. The resulting antibodies were evaluated by indirect fluorescent antibody testing (IFAT). Loeffler’s slope medium incubated at between 37̊C and 42̊C under microaerophilic conditions, supported significantly better growth of D. fragilis trophozoites compared to other media formulations and conditions. Next-generation sequencing of D. fragilis mRNA's generated 6,946 unique contigs. These contigs had an average length of 710 nucleotides with an average GC content of 34%. For the development of polyclonal antibodies, a protein from the enolase family was selected as a suitable target. Multiple enolase homologues were detected in the D. fragilis transcriptome and one of these was used as a template for the design of immunogenic peptides. Two of seven immunogenic peptides designed from this protein gave rise to two respective antibody preparations which reacted strongly to the surface of fixed D. fragilis trophozoites, as determined by the strong fluorescent signal observable in IFAT's. Each of the project aims was addressed succinctly and succesfully, to generate new knowledge on D. fragilis. Various culture systems were evaluated for their ability to support the growth of D. fragilis, and the optimal conditions (among those conditions tested) were determined. This knowledge will assist future investigators in the study of D. fragilis, as culture systems are an essential tool in the study of microorganisms. With the completion of the first D. fragilis transcriptome, thousands of unique nucleotide sequence can now be made available to future investigators. This work currently represents the largest scientific contribution to our understanding of D. fragilis molecular biology. Polyclonal antibodies against a surface antigen of D. fragilis were developed as a result of this project. These antibodies show great promise for implementation in an antibody-based diagnostic test for D. fragilis. Overall, this PhD project has contributed significantly to current knowledge on D. fragilis. It is hoped that this work will stimulate future research on D. fragilis so that our understanding of this organism continues to improve

Dinâmica populacional: variação sazonal dos grupos funcionais fitoplanctônicos em reservatórios brasileiros (Billings e Guarapiranga, São Paulo)

Phytoplankton may function as a "sensor" of changes in aquatic environment and responds rapidly to such changes. In freshwaters, coexistence of species that have similar ecological requirements and show the same environmental requirements frequently occurs; such species groups are named functional groups. The use of phytoplankton functional groups to evaluate these changes has proven to be very useful and effective. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the occurrence of functional groups of phytoplankton in two reservoirs (Billings and Guarapiranga) that supply water to millions of people in São Paulo city Metropolitan Area, southeastern Brazil. Surface water samples were collected monthly and physical, chemical and biological (quantitative and qualitative analyses of the phytoplankton) were performed. The highest biovolume (mm³.L-1) of the descriptor species and functional groups were represented respectively by Anabaena circinalis Rabenh. (H1), Microcystis aeruginosa (Kützing) Kützing (L M/M) and Mougeotia sp. (T) in the Guarapiranga reservoir and Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Wolosz.) Seen. and Subba Raju (S N), Microcystis aeruginosa and M. panniformis Komárek et al. (L M/M), Planktothrix agardhii (Gom.) Anagn. and Komárek and P. cf. clathrata (Skuja) Anagn. and Komárek (S1) in the Billings reservoir. The environmental factors that most influenced the phytoplankton dynamics were water temperature, euphotic zone, turbidity, conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen, nitrate and total phosphorous.A comunidade fitoplanctônica pode funcionar como sensor das variações do ambiente aquático respondendo rapidamente as essas alterações. Em sistemas aquáticos continentais é comum a coexistência de espécies que possuem as mesmas necessidades ecológicas e apresentam as mesmas tolerâncias ambientais, tais grupos de espécies fitoplanctônicas são denominados grupos funcionais. O uso de grupos funcionais fitoplanctônicos para avaliar tais alterações tem se mostrado muito útil e eficaz. Assim, o objetivo do estudo foi avaliar a ocorrência de grupos funcionais fitoplanctônicos em dois reservatórios (Billings e Guarapiranga) que suprem de água milhões de pessoas na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo, Sudeste do Brasil. As amostras foram coletadas mensalmente na superfície da coluna d'água e foram analisadas as variáveis físicas, químicas e biológicas (análises qualitativa e quantitativa do fitoplâncton). Os maiores valores de biovolume (mm³.L-1) das espécies descritoras e grupos funcionais foram representados por Anabaena circinalis (H1), Microcystis aeruginosa (L M/M) e Mougeotia sp. (T) no Reservatório Guarapiranga e por Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (S N), Microcystis aeruginosa e M. panniformis (L M/M), Planktothrix agardhii e P. cf. clathrata (S1) no Reservatório Billings. Os principais fatores ambientais que interferiram na dinâmica do fitoplâncton foram: temperatura da água, zona eufótica, turbidez, condutividade, pH, oxigênio dissolvido, nitrato e fósforo total

The ambiguous life of Dientamoeba fragilis: the need to investigate current hypotheses on transmission.

Dientamoeba fragilis is an inhabitant of the human bowel and is associated with gastrointestinal illness. Despite its discovery over a century ago, the details of Dientamoeba's life cycle are unclear and its mode of transmission is unknown. Several theories exist which attempt to explain how Dientamoeba may be transmitted. One theory suggests that animals are responsible for the transmission of Dientamoeba. However, reports of Dientamoeba in animals are sporadic and most are not supported by molecular evidence. Another theory suggests that Dientamoeba may be transmitted via the ova of a helminth. Given that the closest relative of Dientamoeba is transmitted via the ova of a helminth, this theory seems plausible. It has also been suggested that Dientamoeba could be transmitted directly between humans. This theory also seems plausible given that other relatives of Dientamoeba are transmitted in this way. Despite numerous investigations, Dientamoeba's mode of transmission remains unknown. This review discusses the strengths and weaknesses of theories relating to Dientamoeba's mode of transmission and, by doing so, indicates where gaps in current knowledge exist. Where information is lacking, suggestions are made as to how future research could improve our knowledge on the life cycle of Dientamoeba

Lutter contre les violences basées sur le genre en milieu scolaire en Côte d’Ivoire: Étude exploratoire

Les violences basées sur le genre en milieu scolaire (VBGMS) désignent les actes de violence physique, sexuelle et psychologique contre les garçons et les filles perpétrés au sein et aux abords des écoles, des communautés et des familles et fondés sur un accès inégal aux ressources et au pouvoir, ainsi que sur des normes et stéréotypes inéquitables. Bien que ce type de violences bénéficie d’une reconnaissance accrue en tant que problème majeur à l’échelle internationale, un examen rigoureux de la documentation disponible démontre l’absence de solutions concrètes dont l’efficacité serait avérée. Les liens entre les différents niveaux d’action (que ce soit au niveau des politiques internationales et nationales, des lois ou au niveau des projets et des actions mises en oeuvre au sein de l’école ou des communautés) n’ont, jusqu’ici, pas fait l’objet d’une attention à la hauteur de la problématique. L’initiative visant à mettre fin aux VBGMS est un partenariat entre l’UNICEF, l’Institute of Education de l’University College de Londres, l’Initiative des Nations Unies pour l’éducation des filles, le Partenariat mondial pour l’éducation et les partenaires de Côte d’Ivoire, d’Éthiopie, du Togo et de Zambie (2015–2017), et est financé par les subventions aux activités mondiales et régionales du Partenariat mondial pour l’éducation. L’initiative a pour objectif de mettre en évidence les faits en vue d’étayer, de renforcer et de mieux comprendre le processus de mise en oeuvre des politiques relatives aux VBGMS en Côte d’Ivoire, en Éthiopie, au Togo et en Zambie. Les conclusions de cette initiative contribueront aux débats internationaux et nationaux sur les façons de lutter contre les VBGMS. L'objectif principal de l'étude était d'analyser les réponses à la violence sexiste dans et aux abords des écoles en Côte d'Ivoire, en vue d'éclairer la planification des politiques et des initiatives pratiques à venir. Ce rapport s'appuie sur les données recueillies par l'équipe de recherche, l’UNICEF CO, des consultants nationaux et des partenaires, et expose les résultats d’une étude préliminaire sur les politiques, les pratiques et les faits relatifs aux VBGMS en Côte d’Ivoire

Disaster displacement and zoonotic disease dynamics: The impact of structural and chronic drivers in Sindh, Pakistan

Projected increases in human and animal displacement driven by climate change, disasters and related environmental degradation will have significant implications to global health. Pathways for infectious disease transmission including zoonoses, diseases transmitted between animals and humans, are complex and non-linear. While forced migration is considered an important driver for the spread of zoonoses, actual disease dynamics remain under researched. This paper presents the findings of a case study investigating how disaster displacement affected zoonotic disease transmission risk following the 2010 ‘superfloods’ in Sindh province, Pakistan. We interviewed 30 key informants and 17 household members across 6 rural communities between March and November 2019, supported by observational studies and a review of secondary data. Results were analysed using the ecosocial theoretical framework. Buffalo, cattle and goats were often the only moveable asset, therefore livestock was an important consideration in determining displacement modality and destination location, and crowded locations were avoided to protect human and animal health. Meanwhile however, livestock was rarely included in the humanitarian response, resulting in communities and households fragmenting according to the availability of livestock provisions. We found that rather than a driver for disease, displacement acted as a process affecting community, household and individual zoonotic disease risk dynamics, based on available resources and social networks before, during and after displacement, rooted in the historical, political and socio-economic context. We conclude that in rural Sindh, disaster displaced populations’ risk of zoonoses is the result of changes in dynamics rooted in pre-existing structural and chronic inequalities, making people more or less vulnerable to disease through multiple interlinked pathways. Our findings have implications for policy makers and humanitarian responders assisting displaced populations dependent on livestock, with a call to integrate livestock support in humanitarian policies and responses for health, survival and recovery

Addressing SRGBV in Ethiopia: A scoping study of policy and practice to reduce gender-based violence in and around schools

School-related gender-based violence (SRGBV) describes physical, sexual and psychological acts of violence in and around schools, underpinned by unequal access to resources and power, and inequitable norms and stereotypes. While there is increasing recognition of SRGBV as a major issue globally, rigorous reviews of literature have concluded that evidence about effective ways to address it is lacking. The End Gender Violence in Schools (EGVS) initiative, led by UNICEF with support from the Global Partnership for Education (GPE) and UNGEI, aims to build evidence to better understand, inform and strengthen the process of policy enactment on SRGBV in Ethiopia, Zambia, Togo and Cote d’Ivoire. Findings from the initiative in these four countries will contribute to global debates on how to address SRGBV. This summary presents draft findings from a scoping study of policy, practice and evidence on SRGBV in Ethiopia, which was carried out in 2016. The main objective of the study was to analyse responses to gender-based violence in and around schools in Ethiopia, in order to inform future planning of policy and practice initiatives. The study was a collaboration between the Government of Ethiopia, UNICEF, and the UCL Institute of Education. Several methods for data collection were employed: 1) Two interactive workshops led by the Ministry of Education and facilitated by UNICEF and the UCL Institute of Education (March 2016; December 2016); 2) Literature review and documentary analysis of legislative and policy texts, research reports and datasets, and documents describing programmes or interventions addressing SRGBV in Ethiopia; 3) 23 in-depth interviews with governmental and non-governmental experts. The research questions addressed 1) what we know about SRGBV in Ethiopia, 2) what policies, laws and programmes exist and how well they are enacted, and 3) the availability and quality of evidence on SRGBV

Addressing School-Related Gender-Based Violence in Côte d’Ivoire, Togo, Zambia and Ethiopia: A Cross-country Report

This report synthesises findings from four scoping studies of policy, practice and evidence on school-related gender-based violence (SRGBV) in Zambia, Togo, Ethiopia and Côte d’Ivoire carried out in 2016-2017.This work forms part of End Gender Violence in Schools (EGVS), an initiative led by UNICEF, with support from Global Partnership for Education (GPE) and UNGEI, which aims to strengthen the production and use of high quality evidence in order to build effective approaches to address SRGBV. Data were collected through stakeholder interviews, workshops and analyses of research, policy and programme texts. The research design offers a valuable framework through which to evaluate and strengthen national action on SRGBV through collecting evidence on: prevalence and patterns of SRGBV; laws, policies and plans; structures and partnerships; responses in and around schools; prevention through teaching and learning; and systems for data collection.Overall, these findings point to the need for using an evidence-based, multi-dimensional approach when analysing, developing and enacting policy and practice on SRGBV. The analysis generates an Action Map on SRGBV through legislation, policy and structures; work in schools; and through partnerships and communities