Camel Trypanosomiasis and Its Current Status in Ethiopia: A Systematic Review

Camel is comparatively less susceptible to many of the devastating diseases that affect other livestock species, such as rinderpest, contagious pleuropneumonia and foot and mouth disease but yet they are affected by many other diseases. The most important disease of camel is trypanosomiasis, vector born protozoal disease caused by Trypanosoma evansi parasite whith wide distribution throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world.the aim of this manuscript is to review on available articles on camel trypanosomiasis focusing on current status of it in Ethiopia. Camel trypanosomiasis causes progressive anaemia, depression, dullness, loss of condition and often rapid death. Serology is a preferable diagnostic technique while suramin, diminazene aceturate, melarsomine and quinapyramine are drugs of choice for treatment. But due to drug resistance of the agent control of vectors transmitting the parasite is more important. Preveously, trypanosomiasis caused T.evansi were only a disesse of animals but its reported that frist case of T.evansi is confirmed in human. Furthermore, T.evansi type B that so far only isolated from camel in Kenya is recently confirmed in Ethiopia. Beside, causing great economic losses T.evansi is recently emerging as zoonotic disease and unexpected new strains are being isolated from previosly free areas. Therefore, routine epidemiological and biochemical studies should be performed to design and implement appropriate intervention measures. Keywords: Camel trypanosomiasis, Trypanosoma evansi, Surra, Came

Blue Tongue in Sheep: A Systemic Review

Bluetongue is a non-contagious disease of domestic and wild ruminants caused by a virus within the Orbivirus genus of the family Reoviridae and transmitted by Culicoides biting midges. All ruminants are susceptible to infection with bluetongue, but clinical disease is most often manifested in sheep. In cattle an im­portant role in the epidemiology of BTV because of prolonged viraemia.In past the endemic area of Bluetongue virus are world-wide within tropical and subtropical climates from approximately 35° S to 40° N, in accordance with the extension area of Culicoides imicola, which major vector of the virus in the “Old World, however, bluetongue has recently spread far beyond this traditional range. Since 2006 BTV serotype 8 has also been reported from the countries in Northern and Western Europe where Culicoides imicola has not been found. In such cases, BTV is transmitted by Palearctic biting midges, such as C. obsoletus or C. dewulfi. The economic losses due to direct losses are death, abortions and production loss and indirect losses are export restrictions of live animals and animal product.Anew strategy for prevention and control of the disease was developed to limit direct losses and to reduce indirect losses are the use of mass vaccination of all domestic ruminant species to limit the spread of BTV and the use of intensive active surveillance to limit spread. This reviewpresents comprehensive information on this dangerous disease including its history, spread, economic impact, modes of transmission and species effect, as well as the causative agent and pathogenesis,clinical sign, pathological change and diagnosis of the disease.It also deals with relevant preventive and control measures to be implemented in areas with endemic bluetongue outbreaks. Keywords: Bluetongue, Culicoides, Orbivirus, Reovirida

Bee Venom and Its Therapeutic Values: A Review

Apitherapy is the medicinal therapeutic use of honeybee products, consisting of honey, propolis, royal jelly, pollen, beeswax and, in particular, bee venom. The aims of this paper were to review bee venom and its therapeutic values. Bee venom therapy is the therapy which utilizes the application of bee venom to treat various diseases and it has been used since ancient times in traditional medicine. Bee venom is produced by  the venom gland located in the abdominal cavity and contains several biologically active peptides, including melittin (a major component of BV), apamin, adolapin, mast cell degranulating peptide, and enzymes (phospholipase A2, and hyaluronidase) as well as non-peptide components, such as histamine, dopamine, and norepinephrine. Bee venom has therapeutic values against variety of disease like Arthritis, nervous system diseases, heart and blood System abnormalities and for skin disease. Furthermore, Bee venom has been widely used in the treatment of some immune-related diseases, as well as in recent times in treatment of tumors. Several cancer cells, including renal, lung, liver, prostate, bladder, and mammary cancer cells as well as leukemia cells, can be targets of bee venom peptides such as melittin and phospholipase A2. In order to benefit from the promising role of bee venom therapy research should be extended to identify their specific component and target action. Keywords: Apitherapy, anticancer, bee venom, bee, melitti

Chemical Composition and Medicinal Values of Camel Milk

Out of 25.89 million camel populations on the world 89% are one-humped camels and the remaining 11% are the two-humped. More than 60% of the dromedary camel population is concentrated in the arid areas of North East African countries. Ethiopia ranks third by the number of camel population and second by camel milk production from the globeCamel milk, white gold of the desert is more similar to human milk. Camel milk differs from other ruminant milk as it chemical composition is low cholesterol, low sugar, high minerals, high vitamin C and higher protective proteins like lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase, immunoglobulins and lysozyme, lacks of β-lactoglobulin milk is unique in terms of antioxidative factors, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, anti-hepatitis, anti arthritis, treatment for paratuberculosis, preventies aging, remedy for autoimmune diseases and has cosmetic values. Insulin in camel milk is safe and efficacious in improving long-term glycemic control in diabetic patient. Camel milk reduces autism symptoms in children. Lactoferrin has ability to inhibit the proliferation of cancer cell. Camel milk is rich in magnesium and zinc thus endowed antiulcer properties.  Camel milk has high α-hydroxyl acids which are known to plump and smoothies the skin and also used to treat skin disorders such as dermatitis, Acne, Psoriasis and Eczema. Although camel milk has such values, it’s less appreciated thus its consumption is restricted to pastoral area so further studies should be conducted on the chemical composition and medicinal value of camel milk. Keywords: camel milk, chemical composition, medicinal valu

Insufficient Veterinary Service as a Major Constrants in Pastoral Area of Ethiopia: A Review

The pastoral population occupies a large area of Ethiopia mainly the arid and semi-arid lowlands that are characterized by high spatial and temporal variability in rainfall distribution and pattern. Pasture constitutes 63% of Ethiopia’s agricultural land area and Livestock and livestock products provide about 10% of Ethiopia’s foreign exchange earnings. Additionally, livestock are highly valuable to the nation as direct sources of consumption for the pastoral and agro-pastoral population, as sources of cash income and foreign currency for the nation and for provision of draught power for small-holders in the highland areas. The aim these reviews were to assess major constraints of livestock production and productivity in pastoral areas of Ethiopia with special attention to the role veterinary service in improving livelihood of pastoralists. Even though the livestock sub-sector contributes much to the national economy, its development is hampered by different constraints such as rampant animal diseases, poor nutrition, poor husbandry and marketing systems, poor infrastructure, and shortage of trained manpower. Specially, Livestock diseases have impacts that include loss of livestock and farm productivity, reduction of market opportunity, disturbance of human health and impairment of human welfare. Moreover, disease control activities may have negative impacts on improper use of chemicals and drugs. Therefore Veterinarians, researchers and other responsible governmental and non-governmental bodies have to assist the development of herd health strategies and the selections of possible interventions that will ultimately assist in poverty alleviation, by improving the health and productivity of the animals thus improve of livelihood of pastoralists and to enhance national development as general. Keywords: pastoral, livestock, veterinary service, Ethiopi

Md. Nazmus Sadekin Toxoplasmosis and Its Current Status in Ethiopia: A Review

Toxoplasmosis is one of most important worldwide zoonotic disease caused by the obligate intracellular, protozoan parasite known as Toxoplasma gondii. It is transmitted to humans by accidental ingestion of oocyst after cleaning an infected cat's litter box, accidental ingestion of oocyst with water and consumption of raw meat containing cyst causing fever, malaise, lymphadenopathy, pulmonary and multivisceral abnormality and encephalitis. The aim of this systemic review is to make a comprehensive document on prevalence and current status of toxoplasmosis in Ethiopia. Cats are definitive host for Toxoplasmosis but cattle, sheep and goat, poultary, pig and camel are reservior host and facilitate the transmission of this disease to human. Toxoplasmosis common in Ethiopia and high prevalence is reported yet routine studies are needed to now accurate prevalence. Therefore, more studies in different geographical areas should be performed to design and implement appropriate intervention measures. Keywords: Toxoplasma, Toxoplasma gondii, obligate intracellula

Medicinal Values of Camel Milk

Camel milk differs from other ruminant milk as it contains low cholesterol, low sugar, high minerals,high vitamin C and higher protective proteins like lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase, Immunoglobulins and lysozyme. Camel milk lacks of β-lactoglobulin and used as an option for the individuals intolerant to lactose of cow’s milk Camel’s milk is unique in terms of antioxidative factors, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, anti-hepatitis, anti-arthritis, treatment for paratuberculosis, preventies aging, remedy for autoimmune diseases and cosmetics. Insulin in camel milk is safe and efficacious in improving longterm glycemic control in diabetic patient. Camel milk reduces autism symptoms in children. Lactoferrin has ability to inhibit the proliferation of cancer cell. Camel milk is rich in magnesium and zinc thus endowed antiulcer properties. Camel milk has high α-hydroxyl acids which are known to plump and smoothies the skin and also used to treat skin disorders such as dermatitis, Acne, Psoriasis and Eczema. Although camel milk has such values, it’s less appreciated thus its consumption is restricted to pastoral area. Further studies should be conducted on the chemical composition and medicinal value of camel milk.</p

Current Status of Grevy Zebra: A Review

Grevy’s zebra is a member of the horse family Equidae and so is closely related to horses, asses and other zebras. They inhabit dry desert regions and open grasslands. Grevy’s zebra is one of the world’s most threatened wild equids and is IUCN red-listed as endangered. Historically, the Grevy’s zebra Equus grevyi ranged from east of the Rift Valley in Kenya to western Somalia and northern Ethiopia. Nowadays, Grevy’s zebra is found only in Kenya and small isolated populations in Yabello Sanctuary Park in Ethiopia. They are regionally extinct in Djibouti, Eritrea and Somalia The number of Equus grevyi has declined rapidly by 85% over the last 27 years in the late 1970s the number estimates to be 15,000 but the current estimation is between 1,700 and 2,100. The species of grevy zebra are on the verge of extniction due to habitat degradation and loss, competition for resources with livestock, hunting, drought, disease, hybridisation and predation. Therefore, routine conservation strategies should be implemented as soon as possible..</p

Seroprevalence and Public Health Significance of Toxoplasmosis in Small Ruminants of Pastoral Community in Yabello District, Borana Zone, Southern Ethiopia

Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic protozoan disease. Data on seroepidemiology of toxoplasmosis in Ethiopia is scarce, almost null in the pastoral area of the Borana zone. The study was carried out to determine the seroprevalence, to identify risk factors of toxoplasmosis in sheep and goats, and to assess the awareness level of pastoralists about toxoplasmosis in the Yabello district of Borana zone, Southern Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2016 to April 2017 in six peasant associations of the Yabello district of Borana zone, Southern Ethiopia. A total of 400 serum samples of randomly selected small ruminants owned by pastoralists were examined to detect antibodies specific to Toxoplasma gondii using Latex Agglutination Test (SPINREACT, Girona, Spain). A semistructured questionnaire survey was used to conduct a face-to-face interview with owners (n = 100) of sampled flocks. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine the association of hypothesized risk factors. The overall seroprevalence was 52.8% of which 57.8 and 47.8% were sheep and goats, respectively. Univariate logistic regression analysis revealed a higher seroprevalence ratio of T. gondii infection in sheep than goats (COR: 1.95, 95% CI: 1.226–3.112; P = 0.005). Multivariate logistic regression analysis indicated significantly higher odds of acquiring T. gondii infection in adult animals (sheep: (AOR = 2.26, 95% CI: 1.323–3.874; P = 0.003), goats: (AOR = 2.15; 95% CI: 1.009–4.579; P = 0.047)), female sheep (AOR = 2.45; CI: 1.313–4.568; P = 0.005), animals from lowland areas (sheep: (AOR = 2.28; CI: 1.190–4.356; P = 0.013), goat: (AOR = 3.27; CI: 1.386–7.723; P = 0.007)), animal drinking lake water (sheep: (AOR = 1.93; CI: 1.011–3.698; P = 0.046), goat: (AOR = 2.96; CI: 1.297–6.771; P = 0.010)), and goats with history of abortion (AOR = 2.42; CI: 1.242–4.711; P = 0.009) than young animals, male (sheep), animals from midland areas, animals drinking wells water, and flock with no history of abortion (goat), respectively. Among respondents, 97.0% had no knowledge about toxoplasmosis and 75.0% drink raw milk and consume the meat of sheep and goats. 80.0% of respondents had no knowledge about the risk of cats to human and animal health while 70.0% of them had domestic cats and practice improper fetal body handling. Highly prevailing toxoplasmosis in small ruminants of the Yabello district might pose a serious economic loss and be a potential public health threat to the extremely vulnerable pastoralists. Therefore, awareness and further studies are warranted to tackle the economic and public health consequences of T. gondii infection