Making Small Holes With Lasers.

The femtosecond laser is an advantageous tool for manipulating matter on small scales as it can precisely remove material with minimal collateral effects. The nonlinear mechanisms mediating this damage allow for laser ablation to be confined to tens of nanometers in width. Results presented here expand upon the physics of this type of damage. A number of new damage phenomena for tightly focused femtosecond laser damage in glass are presented and physical mechanisms for their generation are suggested. The first novel phenomenon is the formation of blister-like structures leading to the ejection of thin, flat rings surrounding central damage regions, termed “grommets”. A study of damage depth from single pulse damage is also presented using a number of different measurement techniques including sample cleavage, focused ion beam cross sectioning, and acetate film imprinting. These techniques reveal damage extending far deeper into the target than was expected from the intensity distribution of the focusing optics. Experiments presented here show that a likely source for this elongation of damage is microscale self-focusing. Finally, a range of applications is presented, demonstrating the versatility and speed of single pulse nanochannel fabrication.Ph.D.Applied PhysicsUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/78855/1/jfherbst_1.pd

Luminal Localization of α-tubulin K40 Acetylation by Cryo-EM Analysis of Fab-Labeled Microtubules

<div><p>The αβ-tubulin subunits of microtubules can undergo a variety of evolutionarily-conserved post-translational modifications (PTMs) that provide functional specialization to subsets of cellular microtubules. Acetylation of α-tubulin residue Lysine-40 (K40) has been correlated with increased microtubule stability, intracellular transport, and ciliary assembly, yet a mechanistic understanding of how acetylation influences these events is lacking. Using the anti-acetylated tubulin antibody 6-11B-1 and electron cryo-microscopy, we demonstrate that the K40 acetylation site is located inside the microtubule lumen and thus cannot directly influence events on the microtubule surface, including kinesin-1 binding. Surprisingly, the monoclonal 6-11B-1 antibody recognizes both acetylated and deacetylated microtubules. These results suggest that acetylation induces structural changes in the K40-containing loop that could have important functional consequences on microtubule stability, bending, and subunit interactions. This work has important implications for acetylation and deacetylation reaction mechanisms as well as for interpreting experiments based on 6-11B-1 labeling.</p> </div

K40 acetylation does not directly influence the binding of Kinesin-1 to microtubules.

<p>Myc-tagged versions of full-length kinesin-1 heavy chain (myc-KHC) or truncated, constitutively active constructs (1–891 and 1–379) were expressed in COS7 cells. Increasing amounts of cell lysates were used in microtubule binding assays with a constant amount of taxol-stabilized acetylated (blue lines) or deacetylated (red lines) microtubules and AMPPNP. The percentage of kinesin-1 motor copelleting with microtubules was quantified. Graphs indicate the average of four independent experiments.</p

Generation of acetylated and deacetylated tubulins.

<p><b>A</b>) Lysates of COS7 and PtK2 cells either untransfected (lanes 1 and 2) or expressing the acetyltransferase MEC-17 (lanes 3 and 4) were immunoblotted for K40 acetylation of α-tubulin using monoclonal 6-11B-1 and polyclonal anti-acetyl-K40 antibodies. <b>B</b>) Purified brain tubulin was untreated (lane 1) or treated with recombinant MEC-17 (lane 2) or SIRT2 (lane 3) enzymes. The total tubulin in all samples was determined in parallel by blotting with an anti-β-tubulin antibody.</p

Monoclonal (6-11B-1) and polyclonal (anti-acetyl-K40) antibodies differ in their ability to recognize deacetylated microtubules <i>in vitro</i>.

<p>Taxol-stabilized microtubules polymerized from acetylated or deacetylated tubulins were stained immediately (Live) or after fixation with paraformaldehyde (PFA fixed) with A) monoclonal 6-11B-1 antibody (magenta) or B) polyclonal anti-acetyl-K40 antibody (magenta). The total tubulin in each sample was detected with DM1A antibody (green). Scale bars, 20 µm.</p

Monoclonal (6-11B-1) and polyclonal (anti-acetyl-K40) antibodies differ in their ability to recognize deacetylated microtubules in cells.

<p>COS7 cells expressing the deacetylases mCit-HDAC6 or mCit-SIRT2 (green) were fixed and double stained using A) monoclonal 6-11B-1 (red) and total tubulin (magenta) antibodies or B) polyclonal anti-acetyl-K40 (red) and total tubulin (magenta) antibodies. Transfected cells are indicated by the yellow dotted outline. Scale bars, 20 µm.</p

2D and 3D EM visualization of the 6-11B-1 Fab within the microtubule lumen.

<p><b>A-D</b>) Microtubules polymerized from A,D) untreated B) MEC-17-treated (acetylated), or C) SIRT2-treated (deacetylated) tubulins were incubated with A-C) 6-11B-1 Fab fragments or D) GST-KHC motor domain and visualized after embedding in negative stain. The insets show expanded views of the boxed areas. White arrows in D) indicate kinesin-1 motors on the microtubule surface. Scale bars, 50 nm. <b>E–G</b>) Side and minus end views of 3D helical reconstructions of vitrified microtubules. Visible density thresholds have been adjusted to levels comparable to docked αβ-tubulin. All maps have been low-pass filtered to 22Å resolution. <b>E</b>) Control microtubule without Fab labeling. <b>F</b>) Cross section of acetylated microtubule decorated with 6-11B-1 Fab (orange). The structure of the αβ-tubulin dimer <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0048204#pone.0048204-Maruta1" target="_blank">[30]</a> has been docked into the right side of the density map (α-tubulin is shown in teal, β-tubulin is shown in purple). <b>G</b>) Cross section of deacetylated microtubule decorated with 6-11B-1 Fab (orange).</p

Paclitaxel-Conjugated PAMAM Dendrimers Adversely Affect Microtubule Structure through Two Independent Modes of Action

Paclitaxel (Taxol) is an anticancer drug that induces mitotic arrest via microtubule hyperstabilization but causes side effects due to its hydrophobicity and cellular promiscuity. The targeted cytotoxicity of hydrophilic paclitaxel-conjugated polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers has been demonstrated in cultured cancer cells. Mechanisms of action responsible for this cytotoxicity are unknown, that is, whether the cytotoxicity is due to paclitaxel stabilization of microtubules, as is whether paclitaxel is released intracellularly from the dendrimer. To determine whether the conjugated paclitaxel can bind microtubules, we used a combination of ensemble and single microtubule imaging techniques in vitro. We demonstrate that these conjugates adversely affect microtubules by (1) promoting the polymerization and stabilization of microtubules in a paclitaxel-dependent manner, and (2) bundling preformed microtubules in a paclitaxel-independent manner, potentially due to protonation of tertiary amines in the dendrimer interior. Our results provide mechanistic insights into the cytotoxicity of paclitaxel-conjugated PAMAM dendrimers and uncover unexpected risks of using such conjugates therapeutically