Vaccination: is it all good?

Vaccination has been practiced for hundreds of years, dating back to the 17th century. Throughout history, the mechanisms of vaccination have been studied, refined and improved into what we know vaccination to be today. However, the overall effect of vaccination may have on the homeostasis of the human immune system remains elusive. Vaccination affects several parameters of the immune system, such as antibody concentration, lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine profiles. This study reviewed reports on vaccination efficiency trials and/or studies in general. Thus the study provides a novel view on the practice of Vaccination has been practiced for hundreds of years, dating back to the 17th century. Throughout history, the mechanisms of vaccination have been studied, refined and improved into what we know vaccination to be today. However, the overall effect of vaccination may have on the homeostasis of the human immune system remains elusive. Vaccination affects several parameters of the immune system, such as antibody concentration, lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine profiles. This study reviewed reports on vaccination efficiency trials and/or studies in general. Vaccination has been practiced for hundreds of years, dating back to the 17th century. Throughout history, the mechanisms of vaccination have been studied, refined and improved into what we know vaccination to be today. However, the overall effect of vaccination may have on the homeostasis of the human immune system remains elusive. Vaccination affects several parameters of the immune system, such as antibody concentration, lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine profiles. This study reviewed reports on vaccination efficiency trials and/or studies in general. Vaccination has been practiced for hundreds of years, dating back to the 17th century. Throughout history, the mechanisms of vaccination have been studied, refined and improved into what we know vaccination to be today. However, the overall effect of vaccination may have on the homeostasis of the human immune system remains elusive. Vaccination affects several parameters of the immune system, such as antibody concentration, lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine profiles. This study reviewed reports on vaccination efficiency trials and/or studies in general. Thus the study provides a novel view on the practice of vaccination and the possible impact it may have on the homeostasis of the immune system. It was observed from the reviewed literature that vaccination can cause an increase in the concentration of total antibody and igG as high as 2.4% and 4.6% respectively. These values are found to be excessive when compared to the minimum protective levels reported which will confer immunity against respective infectious diseases. The high levels of antibodies in circulation may lead to hyperproteinaemia, which may in turn affect blood viscosity, serum sodium, osmolality and the serum osmolar gap. To prevent unwanted post-vaccination adverse effects from happening, a controlled and balanced vaccination practice is required. This balance can be achieved if the immune status of an individual is assessed properly. This also give appropriate emphasis and attention to transfer of maternal antibodies during breastfeeding that helps to minimize the risk of infectious disease and chances of an individual to get infection of a certain infection. Furthermore vaccination program should be designed to mimic natural immune responses to infection

Vaccination: potential adverse effects and future challenges

Concerns over potential adverse effects of vaccination have been raised with the aim to develop and design efficient yet harmless vaccines. Using data derived from the reported vaccine efficiency trials and related research, we have analyzed the possible changes in homeostasis of the haematopoietic system in terms of level of antibody (Ab) after vaccination. Several vaccines were reported to increase a wide range of total Ab concentration such as <0.01%-2.40% in children and 0.02%-1.65% in adults. Reported increased level of IgG against Haemophilus influenza type-B was recorded as 605-1210 folds higher in children and 1226-2453 folds higher in adults than the required protective levels. Similar changes were also observed for other vaccines. Such increased level of total Abs at least theoretically can contribute to higher concentration of protein i.e., hyperproteinemia in blood. Since Ab is a polymer of amino acids; therefore hyperproteinemia due to increased level of Ab may in turn affect pH and osmosis of the blood. Therefore, an optimum dose of vaccine(s) for sufficient boost of immune mechanisms, rather than a dose required for highest efficiency, is recommended before an individual is vaccinated

AFM analysis of collagen fibrils in expanded scalp tissue after anisotropic tissue expansion

Successful use of tissue expanders depends on the quality of expanded tissue. This study evaluates the impact of anisotropic self-inflating tissue expander (SITE) on the biomechanics of skin. Two different SITE were implanted subcutaneously on sheep scalps; SITE that requires 30 days for maximum expansion (Group A; n = 5), and SITE that requires 21 days for maximum expansion (Group B; n = 5). Control animals (n = 5) were maintained without SITE implantation. Young's Modulus, D-periodicity, overlap and gap region length, diameter, and height difference between overlap and gap regions on collagen fibrils were analyzed using atomic force microscopy. Histology showed no significant differences in dermal thickness between control and expanded skin of groups A and B. Furthermore, most parameters of expanded skin were similar to controls (p > 0.05). However, the height difference between overlap and gap regions was significantly smaller in group B compared to both control and group A (p < 0.01). Strong correlation was observed between Young's Modulus of overlap and gap regions of the control and group A, but not group B. Results suggest that a relatively slower SITE can be useful in reconstructive surgery to maintain the biomechanical properties of expanded skin