Insulin as a Primary Autoantigen for Type 1A Diabetes

Type 1A diabetes mellitus is caused by specific and progressive autoimmune destruction of the beta cells in the islets of Langerhans whereas the other cell types in the islet (alpha, delta, and PP) are spared. The autoantigens of Type 1A diabetes may be divided into subgroups based on their tissue distributions: Beta-cell-specific antigens like insulin, insulin derivatives, and IGRP (Islet-specific Glucose-6-phosphatase catalytic subunit Related Peptide); neurendocrine antigens such as carboxypeptidase H, insulinoma-associated antigen (IA-2), glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65), and carboxypeptidase E; and those expressed ubiquitously like heat shock protein 60 (a putative autoantigen for type 1 diabetes). This review will focus specifically on insulin as a primary autoantigen, an essentia l target for disease, in type 1A diabetes mellitus. In particular, immunization with insulin peptide B:9-23 can be used to induce insulin autoantibodies and diabetes in animal models or used to prevent diabetes. Genetic manipulation of the insulin 1 and 2 genes reciprocally alters development of diabetes in the NOD mouse, and insulin gene polymorphisms are important determinants of childhood diabetes. We are pursuing the hypothesis that insulin is a primary autoantigen for type 1 diabetes, and thus the pathogenesis of the disease relates to specific recognition of one or more peptides

Phosphorus recovery: a need for an integrated approach

Increasing cost of phosphate fertilizer, a scarcity of high quality phosphate rock (PR)and increasing surface water pollution are driving aneed to accelerate the recovery and re-use ofphosphorus (P) from various waste sectors. Options to recover P occur all along the open P cycle from mining to households to oceans. However, P recovery as a regional and global strategy towards P sustainability and future food, bio energy and water security is in its infancy because of a number of technological, socio-economic and institutional constraints. There is no single solution and resolving these constraints requires concerted collaboration betweenrelevant stakeholders and an integrated approach combiningsuccessful business models withsocio-economic and institutional change. We suggest that an operational framework is developed for fast tracking cost-effective recovery options

Opipramolium fumarate

In the crystal structure of the title salt {systematic name: 4-[3-(5H-dibenz[b,f]azepin-5-yl)prop­yl]-1-(2-hy­droxy­eth­yl)piperazin-1-ium (2Z)-3-carb­oxy­prop-2-enoate}, C23H30N3O+·C4H3O4 −, the piperazine group in the opipramol cation is protonated at only one of the N atoms. In the cation, the dihedral angle between the two benzene rings is 53.5 (6)°. An extensive array of inter­molecular O—H⋯O, O—H⋯N and N—H⋯O hydrogen bonds and weak inter­molecular N—H⋯O, C—H⋯O and C—H⋯π inter­actions dominate the crystal packing

9-[3-(Dimethyl­amino)­prop­yl]-2-trifluoro­meth­yl-9H-thioxanthen-9-ol

In the title compound, C19H20F3NOS, the dihedral angle between the mean planes of the two benzene rings attached to the thioxanthene ring is 41.8 (7)°; the latter has a slightly distorted boat conformation. The F atoms are disordered over three sets of sites [occupancy ratio = 0.564 (10):0.287 (10):0.148 (5)] and the methyl groups are disordered over two sets of sites [occupancy ratio = 0.72 (4):0.28 (4)]. The crystal packing is stabilized by O—H⋯N and C—H⋯S hydrogen bonds and weak C—H⋯Cg inter­actions

2,2-Diphenyl-4-(piperidin-1-yl)butanamide

In the title compound, C21H26N2O, the dihedral angle between the mean planes of the two benzene rings is 81.1 (9)°. The piperidine ring is in a chair conformation. The crystal packing is stabilized by N—H⋯N and N—H⋯O hydrogen bonds and weak inter­molecular C—H⋯O inter­actions

Methyl 2-(4-hy­droxy­benzo­yl)benzoate

In the title compound, C15H12O4, the dihedral angle between the benzene rings is 64.0 (6)°. In the crystal, mol­ecules are linked by O—H⋯O hydrogen bonds, forming C(8) chains propagating in [10] and the packing is reinforced by weak C—H⋯O inter­actions

[3-(5-Hy­droxy-5H-dibenzo[a,d]cyclo­hepten-5-yl)prop­yl]dimethyl­ammonium 3-carboxyprop-2-enoate

In the cation of the title salt, C20H24NO+·C4H3O4 −, the N atom in the dimethyl­ammonium group is protonated. The dihedral angle between the mean planes of the two six-membered rings fused to the cyclo­hepten-5-yl ring is 54.4 (1)°. An intra­molecular O—H⋯O hydrogen bond occurs in the anion. The crystal packing is stabilized by inter­molecular O—H⋯O and N—H⋯(O,O) hydrogen bonds and weak C—H⋯O inter­actions, forming a two-dimensional network

2,2-Diphenyl­acetamide

In the title compound, C14H13NO, which has two mol­ecules in the asymmetric unit, the dihedral angles between the mean planes of the benzene rings are 84.6 (7) and 85.0 (6)°. N—H⋯O hydrogen bonds [forming R 2 2(8) ring motifs] and C—H⋯O hydrogen bonds dominate the crystal packing, forming zigzag chains parallel to the a axis. In addition, weak inter­molecular C—H⋯π inter­actions are observed

Cinnarizinium dipicrate

In the cinnarizinium dication of the title compound {systematic name: 1-diphenyl­methyl-4-[(2E)-3-phenyl­prop-2-en-1-yl]piperazine-1,4-diium bis­(2,4,6-trinitro­phenolate)}, C26H30N2 2+·2C6H2N3O7 −, the piperazine group is protonated at both N atoms and adopts a slightly distorted chair conformation. Strong N—H⋯Ohy­droxy cation–anion hydrogen bonds link the dication and two anions. In the cation, the (2E)-3-phenyl­prop-2-en-1-yl fragment is disordered over two positions in a ratio of 0.586 (4): 0.414 (4). Two nitro groups in one anion and three in the other one demonstrate rotational disorder. The crystal packing is stabilized by weak inter­molecular π–π [centroid–centroid distances = 3.844 (7), 3.677 (9), 3.825 (5), 3.634 (2) and 3.729 (7) Å], C—H⋯π and C—H⋯O inter­actions