Health care expenditure in rural India

Using the NCAER survey data on Human Development in rural India (HDI) (1994), supplemented by other sources, the paper examines the extent of household expenditure on education by different groups of population, the elasticity of household expenditure on education to changes in household income on the one hand and government expenditure on education on the other and the determinants of family expenditures on education. It has been found that there is nothing like 'free' education in India. Household expenditures on education are sizeable; households from even lower socio-economic background—Scheduled Castes/Tribes, low income groups—all spend considerable amounts on acquiring education, including specifically elementary education, which is expected to be provided free to all by the State. Important items of household expenditures consist of books, uniforms and fees. Even in the case of government primary and upper primary schools, students seem to be paying huge amounts of fees—examination and other fees. It is also found that households do not discriminate much against spending on girls' education; substantial differences exist in household expenditures between expenditure on children attending government schools, government-aided schools and private schools. Among the determinants of household expenditures, household characteristics—particularly household income and the educational level of the head of the household—are found to be important. Other important eterminants include demographic burden of the household (size of the household), caste and religion. Generally, gender is believed to be a very significant determinant of household expenditures on ducation. This is not necessarily true in all cases. School related variables chosen—the incentives such as mid-day meals, uniforms, textbooks and stationery, etc., and the availability of school within the habitation—are also quite important. Coefficients of elasticity clearly show that government expenditures and household expenditures do not substitute each other, instead they complement each other. So if the government wishes to mobilise household finances for education, it is important that the government increases its own allocation to education considerably. conversely, and more clearly, if government budgets on education are reduced, household expenditures may also decline resulting in severe under investment in education.EducationRural EducationHousehold Expenditure

Private schooling in rural India

This paper presents a brief review of alternative explanations and views on public versus private schooling in India. The data for this study has been obtained mainly from a sample survey of households conducted by the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) in 1994 in rural India, supplemented with the data available from the All-India Educational Surveys conducted by the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT). The paper analyses several dimensions of private education - the relative size of the private sector, its growth, attributes of children going to private schools, and demand for private education in rural India. A distinction is made between the government-aided private schools and the unaided private schools, with focus on the unaided private school system as the private system of education in India. On the whole, in rural and urban areas together, the relative size of both the government and the government-aided sectors seem to be shrinking and that of the private (unaided) sector is increasing, though private unaided sector is still a tiny sector with less than 9 per cent of the total nrolments at primary level and around 11 per cent at upper primary level. The demand function that has been estimated shows, among other things, that households with higher income demand private education for their children; that the probability of enrolling in a private school is less if the child belongs to Scheduled CasteITribe, than if helshe belongs to other (forward) caste; that ducation and occupation of father1 parent play a role, as do gender of the child (demand for private education for a male child in preference to female) and hislher age (younger the age, higher is the demand for private education).EducationPrivate SchoolingRural Education

Promotion in the Academic Profession in India : Upward mobility of faculty in higher education

書名: THE CHANGING ACADEMIC PROFESSION IN ASIA: THE CHALLENGES AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF ACADEMIC PROFESSION IN ASIARevised version of the paper presented in the UNESCO Bangkok ERI-Net Research Seminar on ‘Academic Promotion of Teaching Personnel in Higher Education,’ Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China (November26-28, 2014). An edited version of this article is to appear in Academic Promotion of Teaching Personnel in Higher Education: Case Studies from Asia and the Pacific (Paris: UNESCO & UNESCO Bangkok)

Professional Development Needs of Manpower in Education in India

This paper presents a brief description of the changing professional development needs of manpower in education in India. Besides presenting a bird's eye-view of the gigantic education system in the country including recent developments, the paper identifies two types of professional requirements of manpower: training of teachers, and training of educational planners and administrators. The role of the existing public institutions, non-governmental organisations and of networking at national, regional and global levels in meeting the challenging demands is briefly described