The long-term experiences of surrogates: relationships and contact with surrogacy families in genetic and gestational surrogacy arrangements.

This study examined the contact arrangements and relationships between surrogates and surrogacy families and whether these outcomes differed according to the type of surrogacy undertaken. Surrogates' motivations for carrying out multiple surrogacy arrangements were also examined, and surrogates' psychological health was assessed. Semi-structured interviews were administered to 34 women who had given birth to a child conceived through surrogacy approximately 7 years prior to interview. Some surrogates had carried out multiple surrogacy arrangements, and data were collected on the frequency, type of contact, and surrogate's feelings about the level of contact in each surrogacy arrangement, the surrogate's relationship with each child and parent, and her experience of, and motivation for, each surrogacy. Questionnaire measures of psychological health were administered. Surrogates had completed a total of 102 surrogacy arrangements and remained in contact with the majority of families, and reported positive relationships in most cases. Surrogates were happy with their level of contact in the majority of arrangements and most were viewed as positive experiences. Few differences were found according to surrogacy type. The primary motivation given for multiple surrogacy arrangements was to help couples have a sibling for an existing child. Most surrogates showed no psychological health problems at the time of data collection.This study was funded by the Economic and Social Research Council [grant number RES-061-25-0480].This is the final version. It was first published by Elsevier at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S147264831400353

The psychosocial outcomes of older parenthood in early to mid-childhood: a mini-review

Recent decades have seen a global trend towards delaying parenthood, referred to as the 'postponement transition'. Whilst there is plentiful research regarding obstetric and paediatric outcomes related to delayed parenthood, relatively little is known about the psychosocial outcomes associated with advanced parental age during early and middle childhood. This mini-review examines the current literature regarding the psychosocial functioning of families headed by older parents. First, we give an overview of the literature that examines the psychological wellbeing of older first-time parents. We then review the literature regarding the quality of the parent-child relationship in older parent families. Finally, we discuss the psychosocial adjustment and cognitive development of children of older parents. We conclude with suggestions for future research avenues

Sex differences in 12, 18 and 24-old-month infants' preference for colour, toys and shape

Introduction: A growing number of studies have found differences between boys' and girls' preferences for sex-typed toys during infancy. Toy preferences have been explained using biological, social and cognitive theories. More recently, focus has turned towards the low-level properties of toys that boys and girls find attractive. The present study was designed to assess the relationship between toy preference and toy colour, as well as to examine sex differences in infants' preferences for colour and shape. In addition, sex differences in the colours of infants' home environments, and in the colour and type of infants' toys, were examined. Method: A total of 120 infants aged 12, 18 or 24 months took part in the study, with 20 males and 20 females in each age group. Colour, toy and shape preference were assessed using the preferential looking task, whereby two images were presented to each infant simultaneously and the infant's gaze was recorded onto videotape. These tapes were later coded to determine the length of time the infant looked at each image. In addition, parental interviews were conducted to obtain data about the colour of infants' home environments and their toy preferences. Results: Sex and age differences in visual preferences for toys were found when the brightness of pink and blue were controlled. Boys looked longer at the car than girls and girls looked longer at the doll than boys. This preference for sex-typed toys was greatest when the infants looked at a same-sex-typed toy coloured in a same-sextyped colour. Despite this overall sex difference, 12-month-olds, irrespective of their sex, looked at the doll more than the car. Infants were not found to show any sex differences in their visual preference for pink versus blue or for angular versus rounded shapes. Sex differences were not found in the colour of infants' bedrooms, bedcovers or bedroom curtains but sex differences were found in the colours of infant playrooms and clothing. With regard to reported toy play, boys played with more vehicles than girls, and girls played with more dolls than boys. A positive relationship was found between infants' reported play with vehicles and their looking time at the car on the preferential looking task. Conclusions: Infants as young as 18 and 24 months show sex-typed visual preferences for toys which are strengthened when the toys are coloured in same sextyped colours. Sex differences in shape preference and colour preference were not found in the present study. Instead, boys and girls were found to be similar in their preference for rounded shapes over angular shapes, and for red over blue

‘Making the child mine’: mothers’ thoughts and feelings about the mother-infant relationship in egg donation families

The number of families being created through fertility treatment with donor eggs is increasing yearly. Women who conceive in this way share a gestational, but not genetic, relationship with their child, yet there is limited understanding of how mothers experience the mother-child relationship during its formative period, infancy. This study explored heterosexual mothers’ thoughts and feelings about the mother-infant relationship in families created through egg donation. Qualitative interviews were conducted with a sample of 85 women who had conceived following egg donation treatment at UK fertility clinics. Mothers had at least one infant (6-18 months) and were living with the child’s father. Interview data were analysed according to the principles of thematic analysis. The results showed that egg donation mothers used a range of strategies across the transition to parenthood which enabled them to establish their identity as the child’s mother and facilitated the process of helping them feel that the baby was their own. This process was individual to each woman, with the absent genetic connection varying in significance between mothers. The strategies employed enabled most mothers to adjust successfully to parenthood and manage any ambivalence and uncertainties associated with non-genetic parenthood. Most mothers felt secure and confident in their position as the child’s mother by the end of the first year.his research was supported by a Wellcome Trust Senior Investigator Award [097857/Z/11/Z] and a CHESS-ESRC studentshi

Documenting Families: Paper-Work in Family Display among Planned Single Father Families

This article extends existing sociological scholarship on doing and displaying family by developing the concept of documenting families. We suggest that documenting is conceptually rich insofar as it showcases the relationship, and tensions, between institutional practices and individual experiences of family display. Drawing on our research with men who became parents without partners, we argue that the process of documenting family is made especially evident in studies of what Finch originally referred to as ‘non-conventional’ family relationships. We explain that documenting sheds light not only on the official and unofficial means through which families are recognised on paper, but also on family practices as work – in this case paper-work – that involves negotiation between different social actors who are generally unequal in terms of their authority and agency to impose situational meaning

Searching for and making genetic connections: recommendations for practice from donor conceived adults in the UK

RESEARCH QUESTION: What are the support needs of donor conceived individuals who are searching for or open to matching with genetic connections? DESIGN: 88 donor conceived adults in the UK participated in an online survey open between January and August 2022. Participants were asked about their level of awareness of current resource provision; recommendations for resources to support the process of searching for genetic connections; and resources to support with feelings about searching or being found by genetic connections. RESULTS: Participants were found to have varying levels of awareness of the resources available. Their recommendations for practical and emotional resources also varied. The most recommended resources for practical support were DNA testing and changes to UK law. The most recommended resources for emotional support were counselling and peer and other support groups. CONCLUSIONS: The impact of legal and technological changes such as direct-to-consumer DNA testing and the legal transition to identifiable donation may be felt by donor conceived individuals irrespective of their year of birth. The wishes of donor conceived individuals for different support resources should be borne in mind by practitioners, regulatory bodies, and policymakers going forward

Psychological well-being and prenatal bonding of gestational surrogates

Study question: How does the psychological well-being and prenatal bonding of Indian surrogates differ from a comparison group of mothers? Summary answer: Surrogates had higher levels of depression during pregnancy and post-birth, displayed lower emotional connection with the unborn baby, and greater care towards the healthy growth of the foetus, than the comparison group of mothers. What is already known: Studies in the West have found that surrogates do not suffer long-term psychological harm. One study has shown that surrogates bond less with the foetus than expectant mothers. Study, design, size, duration: This study uses a prospective, longitudinal and cross-sectional design. Surrogates and a matched group of expectant mothers were seen twice, during 4-9 months of pregnancy and 4-6 months after the birth. Participants/materials, setting, methods: Semi-structured interviews and standardized questionnaires were administered to 50 surrogates and 69 expectant mothers during pregnancy and 45 surrogates and 49 expectant mothers post-birth. All gestational surrogates were hosting pregnancies for international intended parents. Main results and the role of chance: Surrogates had higher levels of depression compared to the comparison group of mothers, during pregnancy and post-birth (p < 0.02). Low social support during pregnancy, hiding surrogacy, and criticism from others were found to be predictive of higher depression in surrogates post-birth (p < 0.05). Regarding prenatal bonding, surrogates interacted less with and thought less about the foetus but adopted better eating habits and were more likely to avoid unhealthy practices during pregnancy, than expectant mothers (p < 0.05). No associations were found between greater prenatal bonding and greater psychological distress during pregnancy or after relinquishment. Limitations, reasons for caution: All surrogates were recruited from one clinic in Mumbai, and thus the representativeness of this sample is not known. Also, the possibility of socially desirable responding from surrogates cannot be ruled out. Wider implications of the findings: As this is the first study of the psychological well-being of surrogates in low-income countries, the findings have important policy implications. Providing support and counselling to surrogates, especially during pregnancy, may alleviate some of the psychological problems faced by surrogates.This study was supported by the Wellcome Trust [097857/Z/11/Z] and Nehru Trust, Cambridge

Grappling with tradition:The experiences of cisgender, heterosexual mothers and fathers in elective co-parenting arrangements

Elective co-parenting families, meaning two (or more parents) who are not in a romantic relationship having a child together, are becoming more common amongst cisgender, heterosexual parents. The study of elective co-parenting families offers researchers a unique opportunity to decouple co-parenting relationships from romantic relationships, but little research to date has explored their experiences. This study explored two research questions: why do individuals decide to enter into elective co-parenting arrangements? And how do they manage their co-parenting arrangement and their relationship with their co-parent? Interview data from 10 elective co-parents (5 mothers and 5 fathers) were analyzed according to the principles of reflexive thematic analysis. Sociological theorisations of family practices, family display and family thinking were utilized to make sense of the data. The results centred around two organizing themes (‘Reproducing the traditional family’ and ‘Modernising the traditional family’), and participants experienced a tension between these two ideas. Participants aimed to manage their co-parenting relationship with shared values and friendship, but defining their relationship was complex and gendered parenting patterns were ubiquitous. Findings add nuance to theorisations of family life and demonstrate that traditional parenthood ideologies remain pervasive, as parents aim to imagine and pursue parenthood on their own terms

Grappling with tradition: the experiences of cisgender, heterosexual mothers and fathers in elective co-parenting arrangements

Elective co-parenting families, meaning two (or more parents) who are not in a romantic relationship having a child together, are becoming more common amongst cisgender, heterosexual parents. The study of elective co-parenting families offers researchers a unique opportunity to decouple co-parenting relationships from romantic relationships, but little research to date has explored their experiences. This study explored two research questions: why do individuals decide to enter into elective co-parenting arrangements? And how do they manage their co-parenting arrangement and their relationship with their co-parent? Interview data from 10 elective co-parents (5 mothers and 5 fathers) were analyzed according to the principles of reflexive thematic analysis. Sociological theorisations of family practices, family display and family thinking were utilized to make sense of the data. The results centred around two organizing themes (‘Reproducing the traditional family’ and ‘Modernising the traditional family’), and participants experienced a tension between these two ideas. Participants aimed to manage their co-parenting relationship with shared values and friendship, but defining their relationship was complex and gendered parenting patterns were ubiquitous. Findings add nuance to theorisations of family life and demonstrate that traditional parenthood ideologies remain pervasive, as parents aim to imagine and pursue parenthood on their own terms

The role of age of disclosure of biological origins in the psychological wellbeing of adolescents conceived by reproductive donation: a longitudinal study from age 1 to age 14.

BACKGROUND: The question of whether children should be told of their biological origins is one of the most controversial issues regarding the birth of children through donated eggs, sperm, embryos or surrogacy. METHODS: In the sixth phase of this longitudinal study when the children were aged 14 years, family relationships and adolescent adjustment were examined in 87 families created through reproductive donation and 54 natural conception families. The quality of family relationships was assessed by standardised interview with mothers and by standardised questionnaires and an observational measure with mothers and adolescents. Adolescent adjustment was assessed using standardised questionnaires. Systematic information on whether and when parents had told children about their biological origins was obtained at earlier phases of the study. RESULTS: There were no overall differences between disclosing families and either nondisclosing or natural conception families. However, within the disclosing families, more positive family relationships and higher levels of adolescent wellbeing were found for adolescents who had been told about their biological origins before age 7. CONCLUSIONS: The earlier children born through reproductive donation are told about their biological origins, the more positive are the outcomes in terms of the quality of family relationships and psychological wellbeing at adolescence