Slavery from space: an analysis of the modern slavery-environmental degradation nexus using remote sensing data

Modern slavery has been connected to degradation of the environment, and has been found to contribute to anthropogenic climate change. Three sectors have been investigated using satellite Earth Observation (EO) data in order to provide a unique insight into the modern slavery-environmental degradation nexus. Remote sensing affords a unique ability to measure and understand these ecological changes over large timescales, and vast geographical areas. A local, regional, and global assessment of sectors known to heavily use modern slavery practices within their workforce has been undertaken using a variety of remotely sensed data sources and products. Fish-processing, brick kilns, and tree loss associated with multiple sectors, have all been analysed. Levels of environmental damage in the affected sectors have been noted, and measured using satellite EO data. These effects have included: tree loss of mangroves and tropical forests for fish-processing camps and oil palm plantations; the emission of pollutants which contribute to atmospheric climate change; the extraction of resources, such as groundwater and good-quality topsoil; and changes to landcover and land-use in areas that are important for production of food and economic support for large populations. Over the course of this investigation, ten post-harvest fish-processing camps have been located, and the first replicable methodology for estimating the number of brick kilns in the South Asian ‘Brick Belt’ region has been provided – where open access satellite EO data enabled the estimation of 55,387 brick kilns. The latter has since enabled machine learning methodologies to provide accurate locations and kiln ages which have assisted in the environmental assessment of this large-scale transnational industry. Furthermore, if modern slavery practices were eliminated from this industry, the environmental impact of the brick-making could be reduced by the equivalent of almost 10,000 kilns. Finally, tree loss has been quantified and the policy implications of deforestation and forest degradation as a result of modern slavery have been explored in four countries. Ultimately, there are a large variety of environmentally degrading activities known to use modern slavery practices that may be explored using satellite EO data. Remote sensing throughout this thesis has enabled the exploration of these implications for some sectors, and proved the proof of concept that additional data acquisition from remotely sensed sources, can support in the overall goal of assisting in the understanding and eradication of modern slavery. Satellite EO is an underutilised methodology within the antislavery community and, as shown within this thesis, there is the power to investigate the environmental implications of these sectors which have had numerous documented cases of modern slavery. In order to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) – particularly target 8.7 which aims to end modern slavery by 2030 – multiple avenues of investigation are required to understand, locate, and eradicate modern slavery. Applying remote sensing to assess the ecological impact of these cases is one such avenue that can provide information to assist in this achievement, and support the success of multiple SDGs. The author would like to acknowledge that they have written the thesis from the starting point of being a non-survivor

Climate change, migration and human trafficking: Assessing the impact of climate change, migration and human trafficking risks for populations in the Bangladesh and India Sundarbans

The Sundarbans region of Bangladesh and India face several climatic risk factors, and for communities in the area they can be compounded by social, economic, and political struggles. Primary data on the ‘human trafficking-environmental degradation-climate change nexus’ for decision-making has been lacking with an emphasis on the use of proxy data. Being able to fill gaps with evidence from the communities being directly affected by such issues is important to be able to develop support mechanisms that are situation-specific, useful, andeasy to access, and which reduce the vulnerabilities of communities and thus their risk of exploitation.In this report, we outline a three-pronged research project funded by CAFOD in partnership with Caritas Bangladesh, Caritas India and OKUP (all in-country), with research being led by researchers at the Rights Lab (University of Nottingham). First, a review of the currentacademic and grey literature on topics related to migration, human trafficking and climate change was undertaken. This was followed by a series of in-country stakeholder interviews to gather evidence from organisations and officials to compare against household survey datawith communities across the Sundarbans in both India and Bangladesh. Findings indicated that there was a link between climate change factors and the choices households made with regards to livelihoods and migratory practices. Issues of debt bondage, human trafficking and forced marriage were identified, and contrasting viewpoints between stakeholders within the regions, and those who are on the forefront of such impacts were notable.The research presented took place between May and November 2022 with the aim of feeding into a series of intervention programmes run by Caritas India, Caritas Bangladesh and OKUP –funded by CAFOD – following the conclusion of the research project until December 2023

Slavery from space: an analysis of the modern slavery-environmental degradation nexus using remote sensing data

Modern slavery has been connected to degradation of the environment, and has been found to contribute to anthropogenic climate change. Three sectors have been investigated using satellite Earth Observation (EO) data in order to provide a unique insight into the modern slavery-environmental degradation nexus. Remote sensing affords a unique ability to measure and understand these ecological changes over large timescales, and vast geographical areas. A local, regional, and global assessment of sectors known to heavily use modern slavery practices within their workforce has been undertaken using a variety of remotely sensed data sources and products. Fish-processing, brick kilns, and tree loss associated with multiple sectors, have all been analysed. Levels of environmental damage in the affected sectors have been noted, and measured using satellite EO data. These effects have included: tree loss of mangroves and tropical forests for fish-processing camps and oil palm plantations; the emission of pollutants which contribute to atmospheric climate change; the extraction of resources, such as groundwater and good-quality topsoil; and changes to landcover and land-use in areas that are important for production of food and economic support for large populations. Over the course of this investigation, ten post-harvest fish-processing camps have been located, and the first replicable methodology for estimating the number of brick kilns in the South Asian ‘Brick Belt’ region has been provided – where open access satellite EO data enabled the estimation of 55,387 brick kilns. The latter has since enabled machine learning methodologies to provide accurate locations and kiln ages which have assisted in the environmental assessment of this large-scale transnational industry. Furthermore, if modern slavery practices were eliminated from this industry, the environmental impact of the brick-making could be reduced by the equivalent of almost 10,000 kilns. Finally, tree loss has been quantified and the policy implications of deforestation and forest degradation as a result of modern slavery have been explored in four countries. Ultimately, there are a large variety of environmentally degrading activities known to use modern slavery practices that may be explored using satellite EO data. Remote sensing throughout this thesis has enabled the exploration of these implications for some sectors, and proved the proof of concept that additional data acquisition from remotely sensed sources, can support in the overall goal of assisting in the understanding and eradication of modern slavery. Satellite EO is an underutilised methodology within the antislavery community and, as shown within this thesis, there is the power to investigate the environmental implications of these sectors which have had numerous documented cases of modern slavery. In order to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) – particularly target 8.7 which aims to end modern slavery by 2030 – multiple avenues of investigation are required to understand, locate, and eradicate modern slavery. Applying remote sensing to assess the ecological impact of these cases is one such avenue that can provide information to assist in this achievement, and support the success of multiple SDGs. The author would like to acknowledge that they have written the thesis from the starting point of being a non-survivor

Investigation of potential diseases associated with NorthernTerritory mammal declines - Final report<br />

Executive summaryThere is compelling evidence of broad-scale declines in populations of small terrestrial native mammals in northern Australia, including the Top End of the Northern Territory (NT) over the past 20 years. Causes under consideration include changed fire regimes, introduced fauna (including predators) and disease. To date information on health and disease in northern Australian mammals has been limited.Disease is increasingly recognised as a primary driver of some wildlife population declines and extinctions e.g., Tasmanian devil facial tumour disease, white nose syndrome in bats and chytrid fungus in amphibians.Disease has been identified as a risk factor for extinction in declining and fragmented wildlife populations globally, particularly in situations of increased environmental stressors, changing ecosystems, arrival of new vertebrate threats or climate change. Unless wild populations are studied in detail over long periods of time, the effects of disease are easily overlooked and may be difficult to determine.This study is the largest and most comprehensive study of health and disease in small mammals in northern Australia and is one of a small number of studies worldwide to have approached investigation of wildlife populations in this comprehensive manner.A total of 281 individuals from four target species were examined and sampled under anaesthesia across five main sites in the Top End of the NT, from June 2013 to Nov 2014. Non-invasive samples (ticks and faeces) were collected from a further 113 animals.Nine prioritised pathogen groups were investigated by diagnostic testing:&bull; encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV)&bull; mammalian herpesvirus&bull; Coxiella burnetii (disease agent causing Q fever)&bull; Leptospira spp.&bull; enteric Salmonella spp.&bull; enteric protozoa (Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp.)&bull; protozoal haemoparasites (trypanosomes, Babesia spp. and Hepatozoon spp.)&bull; Toxoplasma gondii&bull; gastrointestinal helminths (worms)Additional investigation was undertaken under collaborative agreements for pathogens of significance to human health: Ross River virus and Barmah Forest virus.Results were analysed for associations with locations, species, seasons, body condition, sex, blood parameters and other potential health indicators such as level of ectoparasite burden.The majority of individuals examined were assessed to be in good health and body condition.The presence of several pathogens which are known to be associated with disease in wildlife populations was identified, including mammalian herpesvirus, enteric Salmonella spp., protozoal haemoparasites (trypanosomes, Babesia spp., Hepatozoon spp.), enteric protozoa (Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp.), microfilaria and Toxoplasma. Of these, several were previously unreported in target species in the NT.De novo molecular pathogen discovery studies on the northern brown bandicoot (Isoodon macrourus) used cutting-edge metagenomic techniques to look for unrecognised pathogens. Analysis is still underway; however there is evidence of several potentially significant pathogens including viruses from the Retroviridae family.A number of ectoparasite taxa that may act as vectors for infectious disease were identified.The study found evidence that several pathogens, capable of impacting population health, are circulating in Top End small mammal populations, but did not find compelling evidence that a single pathogen is responsible for, or a risk factor in, the decline of small mammals in the Top End of the NT.The study found no serological evidence of infection with encephalomyocarditis virus, Leptospira spp. or Coxiella burnetii; however it is possible that these pathogens are present in populations (at levels below detection limits due to sample sizes), with resultant morbidity or mortality.Limitations of this study include a short temporal span, a lack of longitudinal and survivorship studies, difficulties in collecting specimens from small species and an inability to study populations in the absence of feral cats and other predators. In combination these factors limit the ability to investigate the potentially complex interactions between disease and other pressures on mammal populations.Top End mammal populations are assessed to be at risk of increased levels of environmental and host stresses and are vulnerable to the likely future impacts of infectious disease. The current situation in the Top End fulfils many of the criteria necessary for an emerging infectious disease and novel disease agents should be considered as risk factors for populations. It is recommended that disease investigation continues in mammal populations of concern in the Top End in the medium to long term (five to 20 years) to increase knowledge; improve data sets; maintain and build capacity; and maximise opportunities for detection and response to new disease threats.It is recommended that future studies include, as priorities:&bull; longitudinal and survivorship studies to determine the impact of nominated pathogens on host&nbsp; survival and fitness (e.g., using cortisol and anti-oxidant capacity), and detect pathogen trends in&nbsp; individuals (e.g. whether certain pathogens are shed intermittently and whether infections persist or&nbsp; resolve).&bull; a particular focus on Toxoplasma gondii (due to its strong epidemiological link to presence of cats&nbsp; in the environment and as the only identified pathogen likely to impact a broad taxonomic range&nbsp; of mammals) and any potentially significant pathogens emerging from de novo molecular work.&nbsp; This should include a focus on sites where feral cats have been excluded, to investigate potential&nbsp; interactions between pathogen presence and predation as well as differences in prevalence of T.&nbsp; gondii in areas where the definitive host (the cat) is present/absent&bull; extension of serological studies to a wider host species range (including macropods) to determine&nbsp; the presence and prevalence of priority pathogens such as T. gondii in the landscape.Ongoing collaborative efforts between NT Department of Land Resource Management and the Conservation Medicine Program (School of Veterinary and Life Sciences), Murdoch University may facilitate research and enable continued opportunities for work funded through competitive grants or industry sponsorship

Understanding the co‐occurrence of tree loss and modern slavery to improve efficacy of conservation actions and policies

Locations where populations are most reliant on forests and their ecosystem services for subsistence and development are also areas where modern slavery persists. These issues are noted within the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), both target 15.2 and 8.7 respectively. Often activities using slavery perpetuate deforestation, bolstering a slavery‐environment nexus; which has been examined by comparing modern slavery estimates against environmental protection levels. This study assesses the relationship between tree loss and modern slavery focusing on four countries: Brazil, Ghana, Indonesia, and Mozambique. Previously mapped levels of tree loss and predicted future levels of loss have been compared against modern slavery estimates from the Global Slavery Index 2016 and illegal logging analyses to determine an estimate of the risk for slavery related tree loss. These results provide an insight in to the co‐occurrence between modern slavery and tree loss due to a number of activities that are highlighted, including mining, illegal logging, and agricultural practices. The co‐occurrence is both complex, and yet, beyond coincidental. Implications for both national and global policy are noted assessing the benefits that could be achieved by limiting tree loss and ending modern slavery; of benefit to both the conservation and antislavery communities

Analysing Slavery through Satellite Technology: How Remote Sensing Could Revolutionise Data Collection to Help End Modern Slavery

An estimated 40.3 million people are enslaved globally across a range of industries. Whilst these industries are known, their scale can hinder the fight against slavery. Some industries using slave labour are visible in satellite imagery, including mining, brick kilns, fishing and shrimp farming. Satellite data can provide supplementary details for large scales which cannot be easily gathered on the ground. This paper reviews previous uses of remote sensing in the humanitarian and human rights sectors and demonstrates how Earth Observation as a methodology can be applied to help achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal target 8.7

Incorporating climate change into invasive species management: insights from managers

Invasive alien species are likely to interact with climate change, thus necessitating management that proactively addresses both global changes. However, invasive species managers’ concerns about the effects of climate change, the degree to which they incorporate climate change into their management, and what stops them from doing so remain unknown. Therefore, we surveyed natural resource managers addressing invasive species across the U.S. about their priorities, concerns, and management strategies in a changing climate. Of the 211 managers we surveyed, most were very concerned about the influence of climate change on invasive species management, but their organizations were significantly less so. Managers reported that lack of funding and personnel limited their ability to effectively manage invasive species, while lack of information limited their consideration of climate change in decision-making. Additionally, managers prioritized research that identifies range-shifting invasive species and native communities resilient to invasions and climate change. Managers also reported that this information would be most effectively communicated through conversations, research summaries, and meetings/symposia. Despite the need for more information, 65% of managers incorporate climate change into their invasive species management through strategic planning, preventative management, changing treatment and control, and increasing education and outreach. These results show the potential for incorporating climate change into management, but also highlight a clear and pressing need for more targeted research, accessible science communication, and two-way dialogue between researchers and managers focused on invasive species and climate change

Ending slavery by decarbonisation? Exploring the nexus of modern slavery, deforestation, and climate change action via REDD+

Activities involving the deforestation are high-risk for modern slavery, and is an issue which has global consequences for forest environments and communities. Despite this, little work is being done to eradicate modern slavery from these sectors. Antislavery interventions have often been separate from the work of development providers despite sharing many congruent objectives. Here we outline one sector that could see the integration of antislavery and development interventions to support both at-risk environments and highly vulnerable communities. It is proposed that antislavery interventions are incorporated into the national strategies of the "Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation" (REDD+) programme which targets vulnerable communities to prevent deforestation and forest degradation. It is within these communities that vulnerability factors to modern slavery persist and lead to the degradation of the forest. It is posited that the incorporation of antislavery interventions with REDD+ would improve efficiencies, target more vulnerable populations, protect the environment and support the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). By combining these efforts we can combat the effects of the modern slavery-environmental degradation nexus within an ecosystem that has been shown to be vital in the fight against anthropogenic climate change. With the renewal of REDD+ due, now is the time to integrate these measures