Spinal plasticity in robot-mediated therapy for the lower limbs

Robot-mediated therapy can help improve walking ability in patients following injuries to the central nervous system. However, the efficacy of this treatment varies between patients, and evidence for the mechanisms underlying functional improvements in humans is poor, particularly in terms of neural changes in the spinal cord. Here, we review the recent literature on spinal plasticity induced by robotic-based training in humans and propose recommendations for the measurement of spinal plasticity using robotic devices. Evidence for spinal plasticity in humans following robotic training is limited to the lower limbs. Body weight-supported (BWS) robotic-assisted step training of patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) or stroke patients has been shown to lead to changes in the amplitude and phase modulation of spinal reflex pathways elicited by electrical stimulation or joint rotations. Of particular importance is the finding that, among other changes to the spinal reflex circuitries, BWS robotic-assisted step training in SCI patients resulted in the re-emergence of a physiological phase modulation of the soleus H-reflex during walking. Stretch reflexes elicited by joint rotations constitute a tool of interest to probe spinal circuitry since the technology necessary to produce these perturbations could be integrated as a natural part of robotic devices. Presently, ad-hoc devices with an actuator capable of producing perturbations powerful enough to elicit the reflex are available but are not part of robotic devices used for training purposes. A further development of robotic devices that include the technology to elicit stretch reflexes would allow for the spinal circuitry to be routinely tested as a part of the training and evaluation protocols

Intravenous Immunoglobulin Treatment in Multifocal Motor Neuropathy

# The Author(s) 2010. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Introduction Multifocal motor neuropathy (MMN) is characterized by asymmetric weakness of limbs and the electrophysiological finding of conduction block in motor nerves. Conduction block is the inability of nerves to propagate action potentials and is probably caused b

Syndroom van Susac: visusstoornis, doofheid en encefalopathie

Het syndroom van Susac wordt gevormd door een trias van retinopathie, encefalopathie en gehoorschade, en wordt veroorzaakt door immuungemedieerde zwelling van endotheel, leidend tot micro-infarcering. Het klinisch beeld is divers, waardoor het syndroom gemakkelijk gemist kan worden of vertraging in behandeling optreedt. Snelle en agressieve behandeling met immunosuppressiva is belangrijk voor het verminderen van restverschijnselen. Bij ongeveer de helft van de patiënten is sprake van een enkele ziekteperiode, bij het andere deel treden 1 of meerdere opvlammingen op, soms jaren na het begin van de ziekte. Dit artikel beschrijft 3 patiënten, om de variatie in het klinische spectrum te illustreren. Tevens biedt het een overzicht van de nieuwste inzichten in etiologie, diagnostiek en behandeling van het syndroom van Susac

Brachial and Lumbosacral Plexus and Peripheral Nerves

Interpreting imaging studies of peripheral nerve diseases and especially the brachial plexus (BP) and lumbosacral plexus (LSP) can be challenging. It requires a firm knowledge of the anatomy. It is just as important to be familiar with the end-organ innervations and the surrounding structures, the latter serving as important landmarks. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the main imaging modality of the BP and LSP. High resolution T1-weighted and homogeneous fat-saturated T2-weighted sequences are fundamental sequences in the MRI protocol. More advanced techniques with three-dimensional (3D) sequences such as T2-SPACE and SPACE-SPAIR with 3D maximum intensity projections can be used to visualize the BP and LSP in different planes. Contrast can help in identifying neoplastic processes and the extent of inflammatory processes. This chapter will review the anatomy of the BP and LSP and provide helpful clues to identify the normal and pathologic nerves on MRI. The imaging findings of different traumatic and non-traumatic pathologies (inflammatory, infectious, neoplastic processes) are presented