Landforms

Landforms are distinctive features of the land surface shaped by erosion, accumulation or deformational processes that involve the movement of mass (rock, sediment, water). Landforms are normally classified according to their genesis within three main fields of geomorphological investigation: Structural geomorphology, covering landforms controlled by geological factors; Climatic geomorphology, including landforms developed under specific climatic conditions); and Non-zonal geomorphology, comprising landforms shaped by geomophological processes that occur in most climatic zones. The study of landforms is crucial for (paleo)environmental reconstructions, prediction of the spatial distribution, magnitude and frequency of geomorphological processes (e.g., hazard assessments), and the analysis of local and global environmental impacts. A proper understanding of landforms' genesis and evolution is of paramount importance for the successful planning, design and implementation of engineering projects. Geomorphological mapping can be essential for identifying the suitable site for a project and understanding the processes occurring in the area, including those that may adversely affect the development or feasibility of the project itself. Landforms can be dated, monitored and modelled providing significant clues for the interpretation of past, present and future Earth surface processes, both subaerial and submarine. Since most engineering works are developed at the Earth’s surface, the study of landforms – produced by processes occurring at different temporal and spatial scales – is of special usefulness for engineering geologists. In this context, the analysis and assessment of the state of activity of landforms (active, dormant, inactive), especially in highly dynamic environments, provide important clues for hazard and risk assessments and related mitigation measures

Intensity Scale ESI 2007 for Assessing Earthquake Intensities

Earthquake intensity scales were introduced at the end of the nineteenth century (e.g., Rossi-Forel, Cancani, Mercalli) in order to characterize source parameters, damage distribution, and environmental impact of relevant seismic events. These intensity scales were based on a classification of earthquake effects on humans, on buildings, and on the natural environment. Intensity provides a measure of earthquake-induced damage both at a site (local intensity) and at the epicenter (epicentral intensity). It is important to note that intensity evaluations consider the coseismic effects in the whole range of frequencies of vibratory ground motion, together with those resulting from static, finite deformations (fault ground ruptures)