Impaired perceptual learning in a mouse model of Fragile X syndrome is mediated by parvalbumin neuron dysfunction and is reversible.

To uncover the circuit-level alterations that underlie atypical sensory processing associated with autism, we adopted a symptom-to-circuit approach in the Fmr1-knockout (Fmr1-/-) mouse model of Fragile X syndrome. Using a go/no-go task and in vivo two-photon calcium imaging, we find that impaired visual discrimination in Fmr1-/- mice correlates with marked deficits in orientation tuning of principal neurons and with a decrease in the activity of parvalbumin interneurons in primary visual cortex. Restoring visually evoked activity in parvalbumin cells in Fmr1-/- mice with a chemogenetic strategy using designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs was sufficient to rescue their behavioral performance. Strikingly, human subjects with Fragile X syndrome exhibit impairments in visual discrimination similar to those in Fmr1-/- mice. These results suggest that manipulating inhibition may help sensory processing in Fragile X syndrome

A critical role for astrocytes in hypercapnic vasodilation in brain

Cerebral bloodflow (CBF)is controlled by arterial blood pressure, arterial CO2 , arterial O2 , and brain activity andis largely constantinthe awake state. Although small changes in arterial CO2 are particularly potentto change CBF (1 mmHg variation in arterial CO2 changes CBF by 3%– 4%),the coupling mechanism is incompletely understood. Wetestedthe hypothesisthat astrocytic prostaglandin E2 (PgE2 ) plays a key role for cerebrovascular CO2 reactivity, and that preserved synthesis of glutathione is essential for the full development of this response. We combined two-photon imaging microscopy in brain slices with in vivo work in rats and C57BL/6J mice to examine the hemodynamic responses to CO2 and somatosensory stimulation before and after inhibition of astrocytic glutathione and PgE2 synthesis. We demonstrate that hypercapnia (increased CO2 ) evokes an increase in astrocyte [Ca 2]i and stimulates COX-1 activity. The enzyme downstream of COX-1that synthesizes PgE2 (microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1) depends criticallyfor its vasodilator activity onthe level of glutathione inthe brain.We showthat, when glutathione levels are reduced, astrocyte calcium-evoked release of PgE2 is decreased and vasodilation triggered by increased astrocyte [Ca 2]i in vitro and by hypercapnia in vivo is inhibited. Astrocyte synthetic pathways, dependent on glutathione, are involved in cerebrovascular reactivity to CO2. Reductions in glutathione levels in aging, stroke, or schizophrenia could lead to dysfunctional regulation of CBF and subsequent neuronal damage

Regional Alterations in Purkinje Cell Density in Patients with Autism

Neuropathological studies, using a variety of techniques, have reported a decrease in Purkinje cell (PC) density in the cerebellum in autism. We have used a systematic sampling technique that significantly reduces experimenter bias and variance to estimate PC densities in the postmortem brains of eight clinically well-documented individuals with autism, and eight age- and gender-matched controls. Four cerebellar regions were analyzed: a sensorimotor area comprised of hemispheric lobules IV–VI, crus I & II of the posterior lobe, and lobule X of the flocculonodular lobe. Overall PC density was thus estimated using data from all three cerebellar lobes and was found to be lower in the cases with autism as compared to controls, an effect that was most prominent in crus I and II (p<0.05). Lobule X demonstrated a trend towards lower PC density in only the males with autism (p = 0.05). Brain weight, a correlate of tissue volume, was found to significantly contribute to the lower lobule X PC density observed in males with autism, but not to the finding of lower PC density in crus I & II. Therefore, lower crus I & II PC density in autism is more likely due to a lower number of PCs. The PC density in lobule X was found to correlate with the ADI-R measure of the patient's use of social eye contact (R(2) = −0.75, p = 0.012). These findings support the hypothesis that abnormal PC density may contribute to selected clinical features of the autism phenotype

Redefining the cerebellar cortex as an assembly of non-uniform Purkinje cell microcircuits

The adult mammalian cerebellar cortex is generally assumed to have a uniform cytoarchitecture. Differences in cerebellar function are thought to arise, in the main, through distinct patterns of input and output connectivity, rather than as a result of variations in cortical microcircuitry. However, evidence from anatomical, physiological and genetic studies is increasingly challenging this orthodoxy and there are now various lines of evidence that the cerebellar cortex is non uniform. Here we develop the hypothesis that regional differences in cerebellar cortical microcircuit properties lead to important differences in information processing