Syntactic generation of practice novice programs in Python

Abstract: In the present day, computer programs are written in high level languages and parsed syntactically as part of a compilation process. These parsers are defined with context-free grammars (CFGs), a language recogniser for the respective programming language. Formal grammars in general are used for language recognition or generation. In this paper, we present the automatic generation of procedural programs in Python using a CFG. We have defined CFG rules to model program templates and implemented these rules to produce infinitely many distinct practice programs in Python. Each generated program is designed to test a novice programmer’s knowledge of functions, expressions, loops, and/or conditional statements. The CFG rules are highly generic and can be extended to generate programs in other procedural languages. The resulting programs can be used as practice, test or examination problems in introductory programming courses. 500,000 iterations of generated programs can be found at: https://tinyurl.com/ pythonprogramgenerator. A survey of 103 students’ perception showed that 93.1% strongly agreed that these programs can help them in practice and improve their programming skills

Microbial diversity and biogeochemical cycling in soda lakes

Soda lakes contain high concentrations of sodium carbonates resulting in a stable elevated pH, which provide a unique habitat to a rich diversity of haloalkaliphilic bacteria and archaea. Both cultivation-dependent and -independent methods have aided the identification of key processes and genes in the microbially mediated carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur biogeochemical cycles in soda lakes. In order to survive in this extreme environment, haloalkaliphiles have developed various bioenergetic and structural adaptations to maintain pH homeostasis and intracellular osmotic pressure. The cultivation of a handful of strains has led to the isolation of a number of extremozymes, which allow the cell to perform enzymatic reactions at these extreme conditions. These enzymes potentially contribute to biotechnological applications. In addition, microbial species active in the sulfur cycle can be used for sulfur remediation purposes. Future research should combine both innovative culture methods and state-of-the-art ‘meta-omic’ techniques to gain a comprehensive understanding of the microbes that flourish in these extreme environments and the processes they mediate. Coupling the biogeochemical C, N, and S cycles and identifying where each process takes place on a spatial and temporal scale could unravel the interspecies relationships and thereby reveal more about the ecosystem dynamics of these enigmatic extreme environments

Methanogens and Methanogenesis in Hypersaline Environments

Methanogenesis is controlled by redox potential and permanency of anaerobic conditions; and in hypersaline environments, the high concentration of terminal electron acceptors, particularly sulfate, is an important controlling factor. This is because sulfate-reducing microbes, compared with methanogens, have a greater affinity for, and energy yield from, competitive substrates like hydrogen and acetate. However, hypersalinity is not an obstacle to methylotrophic methanogenesis; in many cases hypersaline environments have high concentrations of noncompetitive substrates like methylamines, which derive from compatible solutes such as glycine betaine that is synthesized by many microbes inhabiting hypersaline environments. Also, depletion of sulfate, as may occur in deeper sediments, allows increased methanogenesis. On the other hand, increasing salinity requires methanogens to synthesize or take up more compatible solutes at a significant energetic cost. Acetoclastic and hydrogenotrophic methanogens, with their lower energetic yields, are therefore more susceptible than methylotrophic methanogens, which further explains the predominance of methylotrophic methanogens like Methanohalophilus and Methanohalobium spp. in hypersaline environments. There are often deviations from the picture outlined above, which are sometimes difficult to explain. Identifying the role of uncultivated Euryarchaeota in hypersaline environments, elucidating the effects of different ions (which have differential stress effects and potential as electron acceptors), and understanding the effects of salinity on all microbes involved in methane cycling will help us to understand and predict methane production in hypersaline environments. A good demonstration of this is a recent discovery of extremely haloalkaliphilic methanogens living in hypersaline lakes, which utilize the methyl-reducing pathway and form a novel class “Methanonatronarchaeia” in the Euryarchaeota