The ribosomal protein genes and Minute loci of Drosophila melanogaster.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in genes encoding ribosomal proteins (RPs) have been shown to cause an array of cellular and developmental defects in a variety of organisms. In Drosophila melanogaster, disruption of RP genes can result in the 'Minute' syndrome of dominant, haploinsufficient phenotypes, which include prolonged development, short and thin bristles, and poor fertility and viability. While more than 50 Minute loci have been defined genetically, only 15 have so far been characterized molecularly and shown to correspond to RP genes. RESULTS: We combined bioinformatic and genetic approaches to conduct a systematic analysis of the relationship between RP genes and Minute loci. First, we identified 88 genes encoding 79 different cytoplasmic RPs (CRPs) and 75 genes encoding distinct mitochondrial RPs (MRPs). Interestingly, nine CRP genes are present as duplicates and, while all appear to be functional, one member of each gene pair has relatively limited expression. Next, we defined 65 discrete Minute loci by genetic criteria. Of these, 64 correspond to, or very likely correspond to, CRP genes; the single non-CRP-encoding Minute gene encodes a translation initiation factor subunit. Significantly, MRP genes and more than 20 CRP genes do not correspond to Minute loci. CONCLUSION: This work answers a longstanding question about the molecular nature of Minute loci and suggests that Minute phenotypes arise from suboptimal protein synthesis resulting from reduced levels of cytoribosomes. Furthermore, by identifying the majority of haplolethal and haplosterile loci at the molecular level, our data will directly benefit efforts to attain complete deletion coverage of the D. melanogaster genome.RIGHTS : This article is licensed under the BioMed Central licence at http://www.biomedcentral.com/about/license which is similar to the 'Creative Commons Attribution Licence'. In brief you may : copy, distribute, and display the work; make derivative works; or make commercial use of the work - under the following conditions: the original author must be given credit; for any reuse or distribution, it must be made clear to others what the license terms of this work are

Analysis of the expression patterns, subcellular localisations and interaction partners of Drosophila proteins using a pigP protein trap library.

Although we now have a wealth of information on the transcription patterns of all the genes in the Drosophila genome, much less is known about the properties of the encoded proteins. To provide information on the expression patterns and subcellular localisations of many proteins in parallel, we have performed a large-scale protein trap screen using a hybrid piggyBac vector carrying an artificial exon encoding yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) and protein affinity tags. From screening 41 million embryos, we recovered 616 verified independent YFP-positive lines representing protein traps in 374 genes, two-thirds of which had not been tagged in previous P element protein trap screens. Over 20 different research groups then characterized the expression patterns of the tagged proteins in a variety of tissues and at several developmental stages. In parallel, we purified many of the tagged proteins from embryos using the affinity tags and identified co-purifying proteins by mass spectrometry. The fly stocks are publicly available through the Kyoto Drosophila Genetics Resource Center. All our data are available via an open access database (Flannotator), which provides comprehensive information on the expression patterns, subcellular localisations and in vivo interaction partners of the trapped proteins. Our resource substantially increases the number of available protein traps in Drosophila and identifies new markers for cellular organelles and structures.This work was supported by a project grant from the Wellcome Trust [076739], by a Wellcome Trust Principal Research Fellowship to D.StJ. [049818 and 080007], and by core support from the Wellcome Trust [092096] and Cancer Research UK [A14492].This is the final version of the article. It was first available from The Company of Biologists via http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.11105

PS Integrins and Laminins: Key Regulators of Cell Migration during Drosophila Embryogenesis

During embryonic development, there are numerous cases where organ or tissue formation depends upon the migration of primordial cells. In the Drosophila embryo, the visceral mesoderm (vm) acts as a substrate for the migration of several cell populations of epithelial origin, including the endoderm, the trachea and the salivary glands. These migratory processes require both integrins and laminins. The current model is that αPS1βPS (PS1) and/or αPS3βPS (PS3) integrins are required in migrating cells, whereas αPS2βPS (PS2) integrin is required in the vm, where it performs an as yet unidentified function. Here, we show that PS1 integrins are also required for the migration over the vm of cells of mesodermal origin, the caudal visceral mesoderm (CVM). These results support a model in which PS1 might have evolved to acquire the migratory function of integrins, irrespective of the origin of the tissue. This integrin function is highly specific and its specificity resides mainly in the extracellular domain. In addition, we have identified the Laminin α1,2 trimer, as the key extracellular matrix (ECM) component regulating CVM migration. Furthermore, we show that, as it is the case in vertebrates, integrins, and specifically PS2, contributes to CVM movement by participating in the correct assembly of the ECM that serves as tracks for migration

A novel transvection phenomenon affecting the white gene of Drosophila melanogaster

The zeste(1) mutation of Drosophila melanogaster suppresses the expression of white genes in the eye. This suppression is normally dependent on there being two copies of w(+) located close to each other in the genome--they may either be in cis (as in a tandem duplication of w(+)) or in trans, i.e. on homologous chromosomes. Duplicated w(+) genes carried by a giant transposing element, TE146(Z), are suppressed by z(1) whether they are in direct (tandem) or inverted order. The tandem form of the TE is very sensitive to a rearrangement on the homologous chromosome--many rearrangements with breakpoints ``opposite'' the TE's insertion site prevent the interaction between the white genes on a z(1) background. These aberrations act as dominant suppressors of zeste that are specific to the tandemly duplicated form of TE146(Z). The inverted form of the TE146(Z) presumably pairs as a hairpin loop; this is more stable than the tandem form by the criterion that its zeste phenotype is unaffected by any of the aberrations. This effect of rearrangements has been used as the basis for a screen, {gamma}-ray induced aberrations with at least one breakpoint opposite the TE site were recovered by their suppression of the zeste phenotype

A Novel Transvection Phenomenon Affecting the White Gene of Drosophila Melanogaster

The zeste(1) mutation of Drosophila melanogaster suppresses the expression of white genes in the eye. This suppression is normally dependent on there being two copies of w(+) located close to each other in the genome--they may either be in cis (as in a tandem duplication of w(+)) or in trans, i.e. on homologous chromosomes. Duplicated w(+) genes carried by a giant transposing element, TE146(Z), are suppressed by z(1) whether they are in direct (tandem) or inverted order. The tandem form of the TE is very sensitive to a rearrangement on the homologous chromosome--many rearrangements with breakpoints ``opposite'' the TE's insertion site prevent the interaction between the white genes on a z(1) background. These aberrations act as dominant suppressors of zeste that are specific to the tandemly duplicated form of TE146(Z). The inverted form of the TE146(Z) presumably pairs as a hairpin loop; this is more stable than the tandem form by the criterion that its zeste phenotype is unaffected by any of the aberrations. This effect of rearrangements has been used as the basis for a screen, γ-ray induced aberrations with at least one breakpoint opposite the TE site were recovered by their suppression of the zeste phenotype

The mesoderm determinant snail collaborates with related zinc-finger proteins to control Drosophila neurogenesis.

The Snail protein functions as a transcriptional regulator to establish early mesodermal cell fate. Later, in germ band-extended embryos, Snail is also expressed in most neuroblasts. Here we present evidence that this expression of Snail is required for central nervous system (CNS) development. The neural function of snail is masked by two closely linked genes, escargot and worniu. Both Escargot and Worniu contain zinc-finger domains that are highly homologous to that of Snail. Although not affecting expression of early neuroblast markers, the deletion of the region containing all three genes correlates with loss of expression of CNS determinants including fushi tarazu, pdm-2 and even-skipped. Transgenic expression of each of the three Snail family proteins can rescue efficiently the fushi tarazu defects, and partially the pdm-2 and even-skipped CNS patterns. These results demonstrate that the Snail family proteins have essential functions during embryonic CNS development, around the time of ganglion mother cell formation