Atvinna og atvinnustefna hins opinbera í dreifbýli: Reynsla kvenna og karla á sunnanverðum Vestfjörðum

Publisher's version (útgefin grein)Í greininni er fjallað um atvinnu og atvinnuuppbyggingu í dreifbýli, hvernig hún horfir við íbúum á landsbyggðinni og hvaða áhrif hún hefur á stöðu kynjanna. Seinni hluta síðustu aldar einkenndust aðgerðir stjórnvalda af tilraunum til að bregðast við samdrætti í landbúnaðarframleiðslu, of stórum skipastóli og minnkandi afla. Margt bendir til þess að skammtímasjónarmið og skortur á heildarstefnumótun og langtímamarkmiðum hafi hamlað árangri á þessu sviði. Í greininni er fjallað um atvinnustefnu stjórnvalda í ljósi reynslu kvenna og karla á sunnanverðum Vestfjörðum, sem skilgreindir eru sem „varnarsvæði“ í búsetuþróun. Fram kemur að hin opinbera atvinnustefna hefur orðið mörgum á landsbyggðinni dýrkeypt og tortryggni gætir gagnvart stjórnvaldsaðgerðum. Karlar hafa bitra reynslu af stórtækum uppbyggingaráformum stjórnvalda í einstökum atvinnugreinum meðan konur telja sig eiga erfiðara uppdráttar en karlar hvað varðar styrki og stuðning. Enda þótt kveðið hafi verið á um jafnréttissjónarmið í opinberri stefnumótun síðan í lok síðustu aldar hafa atvinnuskapandi aðgerðir ekki tekið mið af mismunandi aðstæðum og möguleikum kvenna og karla. Brýnt er að atvinnu- og byggðastefna byggist á vel ígrunduðum langtímasjónarmiðum og taki mið af kynja- og jafnréttissjónarmiðum.The article addresses employment and employment policies in rural areas. We explore men and women’s employment opportunities in rural areas, and whether it has gendered consequences. During the last decades policy making in rural areas has been characterized by attempts to respond to reductions in agricultural production and reduced fishing. Long term policy has been lacking and short term measures have been pursued without sufficient preparation and concern for long term effects. The article discusses the experience of men and women’s employment opportunities in the South Westfjords, which turned out to be a painful experience. There is scepticism towards public governance, men have bitter experiences of grandiose plans and activities encouraged by the government whereas women consider themselves discriminated against regarding support and financing. Although gender equality has been a part of public policy for a long period these measures have not taken gender into account. It is important that employment policy and rural policy is well informed and receptive to gender perspectives.Peer Reviewe

„Rosaleg óvissa hjá okkur og vondur tími“: Um starfsöryggi og líðan kennara eftir hrun

Markmið þessarar greinar er að skoða starfsöryggi og líðan grunn- og leikskólakennara hér á landi í kjölfar efnahagshrunsins 2008. Blönduðum aðferðum var beitt við gagnaöflun og greiningu. Rafrænn spurningalisti var sendur í tvígang til alls starfsfólks 20 sveitarfélaga, fyrst árið 2010 og svo aftur ári síðar. Jafnframt voru tekin rýnihópaviðtöl við grunn- og leikskólakennara í tveimur sveitarfélaganna, samtals við 30 einstaklinga. Niðurstöður rannsóknarinnar leiddu m.a. í ljós að í mörgum grunn- og leikskólum hefur starfsfólki verið sagt upp og starfsöryggi minnkað milli áranna 2010 og 2011. Tengsl eru á milli óöryggis og neikvæðrar heilsu og líðanar starfsfólks. Skert starfsöryggi hafði sterkust tengsl við löngun til að hætta í starfi og sterkari tengsl við sjálfmetna andlega heilsu en sjálfmetna líkamlega heilsu.Peer Reviewe

Structural Hindrances or Less Driven Women? Managers’ Views on Corporate Quotas

Post-print (lokagerð höfundar)High levels of women in politics and paid work, together with the availability of paid parental leave and public child care, make the gender imbalance in business leadership in Iceland all the more confounding. This study analyzes business leaders’ attitudes toward gender and leadership positions after a gender quota law for company boards was implemented in 2013. We explore support for gender quotas and whether it is related to how respondents explain women's underrepresentation in leadership positions. A questionnaire was sent to 1,349 managers in the 250 largest companies in Iceland. Our findings indicate that women are more supportive of gender quotas than men. The way in which the respondents explain the underrepresentation of women as top managers is strongly related to their support for gender quotas. Those who believe that women are structurally disadvantaged are more likely to support gender quotas than those who adhere to individual explanations. Furthermore, male dominance at higher company levels is related to negative views on gender quotas, whereas this does not apply at lower levels. The research emphasizes the impact of business leaders on the recruitment of women to business leadership positions and, at the same time, has implications for policy interventions.Peer Reviewed Post-prin

Top managers and the gendered interplay of organizations and family life: the case of Iceland

Post-print (lokagerð höfundar)Purpose: Iceland, along with the other Nordic countries, is seen as an international frontrunner in gender equality and equal sharing of responsibility for paid and unpaid work is part of the official ideology. Nevertheless, the number of women in leadership positions remains low. The purpose of this study is to analyse the practices that (re)produce power imbalances between women and men in business leadership both at the macro and the micro levels. This is done by using two theoretical explanations: gendered organizational practices and the interplay of organizations and family life. Design/methodology/approach: The mixed methods are applied by analysing 51, semi-structured interviews with female and male business leaders and survey data from CEOs and executives from the 250 largest companies in Iceland. Findings: The analyses reveal gender differences and asymmetries in work life as well as within the family. Men have longer working hours than women, higher salaries and more job-related travelling. Women carry the dual burden of work and family to a higher degree than do men. By questioning and attempting to resist the organizational culture women risk further disadvantage. The situation of male and female leaders is therefore incomparable. This is a paradox and does not fit with the idea of the Nordic gender equality of a dual breadwinner society. Originality/value: It is shown that lack of gender diversity in business leadership is based on gendered organizational practices as well as on power relations within families. These two aspects are mutually reinforcing and the originality of the study is to explore the interplay between them. The authors conclude that despite being the country at the forefront of gender equality in the world, neither organizational practices nor family relations recognize the different life experiences of women and men in Iceland. This is expressed in organizational practices and different access to time and support, which may hinder gaining gender equality in top leadership. © 2018, Emerald Publishing Limited.University of Iceland Doctoral FundPeer reviewe

The politics of diversity: Social and political integration of immigrants in Iceland

The ethnic diversity of modern states raises the question of where successful countries are in terms of immigrant inclusion. The number of immigrants in Iceland has increased significantly since 2004, and by the end of 2016, immigrants made up around 10% of the population of Iceland. Research reveals a gap between immigrants and natives in terms of social and political inclusion. This paper examines the social and political integration of male and female immigrants in Iceland via comparisons with the native population. We ask how native Icelanders and people with a non-Icelandic background experience their social position and political participation within Icelandic society. We focus on political efficacy, ideas about what makes a good citizen, and subjective status position as indicators of the degree of social and political integration. We use data from the 2014 International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) on Citizenship, which is based on a random sample of 2,000 individuals and random samples of 600 individuals each targeting two of the largest immigrant groups in Iceland—Lithuanians and Poles—as well as the largest Asian immigrant group: Filipinos. Although the findings show integration of immigrants up to a certain extent, the differences between Icelandic and non-Icelandic participants are apparent and include certain disadvantages for participants with a foreign background. Although other variables—such as income, education, paid employment status, and age—play a larger role in social and political status than foreign nationality, the findings of this study suggest that there is room to improve the integration of immigrants in Iceland.Peer Reviewe

Individual risk assessment and information technology to optimise screening frequency for diabetic retinopathy.

To access publisher full text version of this article. Please click on the hyperlink in Additional Links field.AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: The aim of this study was to reduce the frequency of diabetic eye-screening visits, while maintaining safety, by using information technology and individualised risk assessment to determine screening intervals. METHODS: A mathematical algorithm was created based on epidemiological data on risk factors for diabetic retinopathy. Through a website, www.risk.is , the algorithm receives clinical data, including type and duration of diabetes, HbA(1c) or mean blood glucose, blood pressure and the presence and grade of retinopathy. These data are used to calculate risk for sight-threatening retinopathy for each individual's worse eye over time. A risk margin is defined and the algorithm recommends the screening interval for each patient with standardised risk of developing sight-threatening retinopathy (STR) within the screening interval. We set the risk margin so that the same number of patients develop STR within the screening interval with either fixed annual screening or our individualised screening system. The database for diabetic retinopathy at the Department of Ophthalmology, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark, was used to empirically test the efficacy of the algorithm. Clinical data exist for 5,199 patients for 20 years and this allows testing of the algorithm in a prospective manner. RESULTS: In the Danish diabetes database, the algorithm recommends screening intervals ranging from 6 to 60 months with a mean of 29 months. This is 59% fewer visits than with fixed annual screening. This amounts to 41 annual visits per 100 patients. CONCLUSION: Information technology based on epidemiological data may facilitate individualised determination of screening intervals for diabetic eye disease. Empirical testing suggests that this approach may be less expensive than conventional annual screening, while not compromising safety. The algorithm determines individual risk and the screening interval is individually determined based on each person's risk profile. The algorithm has potential to save on healthcare resources and patients' working hours by reducing the number of screening visits for an ever increasing number of diabetic patients in the world

Elites in Iceland – homogeneity and internal relationships

Á Íslandi hefur það gjarnan verið trú fólks að félagslegur og efnahagslegur jöfnuður einkenni þjóðina og að hvers konar elítur séu lítt áberandi. Engu að síður eru vísbendingar um að elítur séu til staðar, og ennfremur að þær séu styrkjast og ójöfnuður að aukast. Markmið greinarinnar er að greina viðskiptaog atvinnulífselítuna á Íslandi árin 2014 og 2015 út frá tengslum hennar við aðrar elítur sem og innbyrðis tengslum. Slík greining gefur vísbendingar um hversu opin elítan er, tengsl hennar við almenning, og um lýðræðislega uppbyggingu hópsins. Byggt er á tveimur gagnasöfnum; Vald og lýðræði – elíturannsókn og Kynjajafnrétti við stjórn atvinnulífsins: stefna, þróun og áhrif. Til að fá myndræna sýn á innbyrðis tengsl elítuflokka var notast við hugbúnaðarpakkann igraph fyrir R. Niðurstöðurnar sýna talsverð innbyrðis tengsl á milli einstaklinga sem mynda viðskipta- og atvinnulífselítuna. Einsleitni í búsetu, mælt í póstnúmerum er sterk, einkum meðal karla og þeirra sem eldri eru. Búsetueinsleitni þeirra sem eru í forystuhlutverki stjórnmálanna er fjórum sinnum meiri en þeirra sem ekki taka þátt í slíku starfi. Svipað mynstur sést þegar tengslin við íþróttahreyfinguna eru skoðuð; eftir því sem þátttaka einstaklings í íþróttastarfi er meiri, þeim munIceland has generally been characterized as a nation where social and economic equality are prominent, and where elite structures are relatively unimportant. There are, however, indications that elites exist, and futhermore, that they are becoming more pronounced and that inequality is on the rise. The goal of this paper is to analyze the business and commerce elite in Iceland the years 2014 and 2015, based on its relations with other elite groups and relations within the group. This allows conclusions to be drawn about the openness of the elite, its relations with the populace, and the democratic structures of the group. The analysis utilizes two data sets: Power and Democracy – A Study of Elites, and Gender Equality in Business: Evolution and Influence. Graphical analysis of elite structures was performed using R and igraph. The results indicate various internal relationship structures within the business and commerce elite. Residential homogeneity is prevalent, especially among male and older elites. A top management team member’s participation in politics or organized sports is predictive of greatly increased residential homogeneity in his or her team. The results suggest a layered elite structure and gaps in elite-populace relations. This indicates that it is important to consider the democratic structures of the Icelandic business elite and whether its homogeneity affects decision making within the elitePeer Reviewe

Role of public and private funding in the rising caesarean section rate:a cohort study

Objective: The caesarean section rates have been rising in the developed world for over two decades. This study assessed the involvement of the public and private health sectors in this increase. Design: Population-based, retrospective cohort study. Setting: Public and private hospitals in Western Australia. Participants: Included in this study were 155 646 births to nulliparous women during 1996-2008. Main outcome measures: Caesarean section rates were calculated separately for four patient type groups defined according to mothers' funding source at the time of birth (public/private) and type of delivery hospital ( public/private). The average annual per cent change (AAPC) for the caesarean section rates was calculated using joinpoint regression. Results: Overall, there were 45 903 caesarean sections performed (29%) during the study period, 24 803 in-labour and 21 100 prelabour. Until 2005, the rate of caesarean deliveries increased most rapidly on average annually for private patients delivering in private hospitals (AAPC=6.5%) compared with public patients in public hospitals (AAPC=4.3%, p<0.0001). This increase could mostly be attributed to an increase in prelabour caesarean deliveries for this group of women and could not be explained by an increase in breech deliveries, placenta praevia or multiple pregnancies. Conclusions: Our results indicate that an increase in the prelabour caesarean delivery rate for private patients in private hospitals has been driving the increase in the caesarean section rate for nulliparous women since 1996. Future research with more detailed information on indication for the prelabour caesarean section is needed to understand the reasons for these findings

Neonatal complications in public and private patients:a retrospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE: To use propensity score methods to create similar groups of women delivering in public and private hospitals and determine any differences in mode of delivery and neonatal outcomes between the matched groups. DESIGN: Population-based, retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Public and private hospitals in Western Australia. PARTICIPANTS: Included were 93 802 public and 66 479 private singleton, term deliveries during 1998-2008, from which 32 757 public patients were matched with 32 757 private patients on the propensity score of maternal characteristics. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Neonatal outcomes were compared in the propensity score-matched cohorts using conditional logistic regression, adjusted for antenatal risk factors and mode of delivery. Outcomes included Apgar score <7 at 5 min, neonatal resuscitation (endotracheal intubation or external cardiac massage) and admission to a neonatal special care unit. RESULTS: No significant differences in maternal characteristics were found between the propensity score-matched groups. Private patients were more likely than their matched public counterparts to undergo prelabour caesarean section (25.2% vs 18%, p<0.0001). Public patients had lower rates of neonatal unit admission (AOR 0.67, 95% CI 0.62 to 0.73) and neonatal resuscitation (AOR 0.73, 95% CI 0.56 to 0.95), but higher rates of low Apgar scores at 5 min (AOR 1.31, 95% CI 1.06 to 1.63) despite adjustment for antenatal factors. Additional adjustment for mode of delivery reduced the resuscitation risk (AOR 0.86, 95% CI  0.63 to 1.18) but did not significantly alter the other estimates. CONCLUSIONS: Propensity score methods can be used to generate comparable groups of public and private patients. Despite the rates of low Apgar scores being higher in public patients, the rates of special care admission were lower. Whether these findings stem from differences in paediatric services or clinical factors is yet to be determined

Common genetic variability in ESR1 and EGF in relation to endometrial cancer risk and survival

We investigated common genetic variation in the entire ESR1 and EGF genes in relation to endometrial cancer risk, myometrial invasion and endometrial cancer survival. We genotyped a dense set of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in both genes and selected haplotype tagging SNPs (tagSNPs). The tagSNPs were genotyped in 713 Swedish endometrial cancer cases and 1567 population controls and the results incorporated into logistic regression and Cox proportional hazards models. We found five adjacent tagSNPs covering a region of 15 kb at the 5′ end of ESR1 that decreased the endometrial cancer risk. The ESR1 variants did not, however, seem to affect myometrial invasion or endometrial cancer survival. For the EGF gene, no association emerged between common genetic variants and endometrial cancer risk or myometrial invasion, but we found a five-tagSNP region that covered 51 kb at the 5′ end of the gene where all five tagSNPs seemed to decrease the risk of dying from endometrial cancer. One of the five tagSNPs in this region was in strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) with the untranslated A61G (rs4444903) EGF variant, earlier shown to be associated with risk for other forms of cancer