Identity, Preparation, Dosages and Conservation Knowledge of the Antidiabetic Herbs Used by The Tugen Living in Baringo County-Kenya

The primary goal of managing Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is to regulate blood sugar levels within the physiologic limits (3Mmol/l to7Mmmol/l-fasting blood sugars). This can be either done pharmacologically (conventional or non-conventional) or non- pharmacologically (exercises etc.). Available reports show that, more than 80% of the African population use non-conventional pharmacological approaches- especially herbal remedies in the management of their ailments including DM. Objectives: The study sought to identify the antidiabetic herbs used by the Tugen community living in Baringo county-Kenya. Establish the plant parts in use, preparation methods and the dosage of each specific herb. Equally assess the knowledge of both the diabetics and the antidiabetic herbalists on possible antidiabetic herbal medicine conservation. Materials and Methodolog: A descriptive cross-sectional survey study design was adopted. Information about the local names of commonly used herbs and the plant parts, their preparation, their doses and the knowledge of antidiabetic herbal conservation was obtained from 39 medically ascertained diabetics between 27 to 70 years old and 12 herbalists, using a researcher administered questionnaire and an interview guiderespectively. They were identified through snow balling and purposive sampling method. Samples of the identified plants’/ herbs’ parts were collected and taken for taxonomic identification and Assigning of botanical names based on their morphological characteristics was done at the department of Botany, University of Eldoret, Kenya. Data entry, cleaning, and coding was done using Excel Office 13. Analysising with SPSS version 21 software. The summarized data were presented in tables of frequencies and graphs where applicable. Results : The commonly used herbal medications in the management of diabetes, in Baringo as reported by the herbalist were Urtica dioica (stinging nettle (UD)) (75%) and Carissa edulis (CE) (58%). Most (85%) of the herbs according to the diabetics were dried, crushed to powder then added to boiling water before drinking. Dosage, unanimously, the herbs were taken twice a day 2-3 teaspoonfuls in either 250mls or 500mls of boiled and/or cooled water. Diabetics (77%) took these herbs because they believed herbal medicine improve their health. Herbalists (67%), believed their diabetic herbal medications stabilize blood sugars and cured their patients. Diabetic patients and herbalists had some knowledge about bio conservation, 44% of the diabetics understood conservation as planting more medicinal herbal plants/herbs. Herbalists 75% of them described conservations as a surity of constant supply annually. According to the herbalists “those herbs which can be dried and stored, could be harvested in plenty during the rainy season to last till the next rainy season”. Conclusions: Among the Tugen living in baringo, Carissa edulis (CE) and Urtica dioica (UD) were the most frequently used antidiabetics followed by Hypoestes forskaolii (HF) to regulate sugar levels. There was no standard method of preparation and dosaging of these herbs due variations from patients/herbalists. Recommendations: Policymakers need to create awareness on the importance of standardization and bio conservation for enhancement of sustainability and careful use of these very important scarce environmental resources and not loose the diabetic herb/plant biodiversity. Taking care of biodiversity and its services in the community, creates one of the reasons why we should enhance and promote conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants Keywords: Anti-diabetic herbal medicinal plants/herbs, Diabetics, Antidiabetic plant/herb herbalists, Preparation, Dosaging, Tugen community, Baringo County

Risk Assessment of Aflatoxin and Fumonisin in Fish Feeds, Kenya: A Review

Fish is a protein source and constitutes other significant nutrients that have been crucial to human health. Aquaculture in Kenya has grown faster than any other food production sector, with fish feeds being prepared from different cereal products commonly contaminated by Mycotoxins. But controlling the growth of fungi that cause mycotoxin has been a challenge due to conditions that enable their development. With fish contamination primarily ignored, there is still high consumption of fish being propagated by improved and increased aquacultural activities. There have been various qualitative and quantitative assessments on Aflatoxin and Fumonisin in animal feed and food with little focus on fish feed which might be the most significant risk factor for cancer development. Kenya's high occurrence warranted the current review, which describes sources of fish feeds, conditions for mould growth, exposure of fish too contaminated feeds, decontamination of fish feed and feed ingredients, effects of Fumonisin and Aflatoxin on fish and human, risk characterization and management strategies. This review provides a platform and insights to novice researchers to pave the way for future research in the area. Keywords: Mycotoxins; Aflatoxins; Fumonisin; Uasin Gishu; Kisumu. DOI: 10.7176/JBAH/11-10-05 Publication date:May 31st 202

Spatial distribution and loss of micronutrients in soils from two different land use management

Land use – land cover changes affect the ecosystems' status and integrity to support and supply the services. Agricultural activities and attendant soil erosion, leaching or depletion of nutrients may result in increased soil degradation. The study investigated micronutrient spatial distribution and concentration in soils within two different agricultural land use management. The study employed RUSLE equations to determine the erosion rate within the selected plots. Topsoils (5-10cm) from different points within the plots were collected and analyzed for micronutrients using ICPMS(QQQ). The plots are located in high potential soil erosion places with soil erodibility (K) factor OF 0.031-ton ha-1MJ-1mm-1 within the Ombeyi river catchment. The soil erosion was estimated to be > 50t ha-1 year-1 , implying the high loss of nutrients; hence, over 52 elements were analyzed. The two plots compared micronutrients iodine (I), calcium (Ca), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), selenium (Se), zinc (Zn), and molybdenum (Mo). In Plot 1(no terraces), micronutrients were concentrated at the base of the plot, while in plot 2 ( terraces), some elements were evenly distributed. There is a significant difference in the concentration of elements between the plots; I, Se, Cu, Ca and Mg, depicting a p-Value of 0.05. Elements in plot one were mapped with high concentration at the lower part of the plot as related to plot two which most of the elements were evenly distributed hence reduced micronutrients in plot 2. This encourages educating farmers on the importance of good terrain soil management

Plutonium as a soil erosion tracer in east Africa

Subsistence farmers in Africa are often dependent on food grown within a limited area, and therefore, their health can often be associated with geochemical factors that influence the soil-tocrop transfer of micronutrients (MN) essential for health. Loss of essential MN because of soil erosion can affect both crop yields and the protection of crops against disease, which could dramatically increase the likelihood of food shortages worldwide. In addition to the effects on land, the associated downstream transport of sediments to water bodies associated with soil erosion can impact water security. A large proportion of the degradation caused by soil erosion processes is a direct result of poor land management practises as well as vegetation clearance, and so there is a need for reliable quantitative data detailing rates of soil erosion and sedimentation. This data can then help to reinforce sustainable soil conservation measures in areas where resources to manage soils sustainably can be limited. This research aims to investigate the potential of using plutonium as an alternative tracer of soil erosion in challenging environments such as tropical Africa. This will allow for further research into the extent of soil erosion across East Africa and inform future mitigation efforts to reduce further erosion in the future

Optimisation of plutonium separations using TEVA cartridges and ICP-MS/MS analysis for applicability to large-scale studies in tropical soils

The analysis of plutonium (Pu) in soil samples can inform the understanding of soil erosion processes globally. However, there are specific challenges associated for analysis in tropical soils and so an optimal analytical methodology ensuring best sensitivity is critical. This method aimed to demonstrate the feasibility of sample preparation and analysis of Pu isotopes in African soils, considering the environmental and cost implications applicable to low-resource laboratories. The separation procedure builds upon previous work using TEVA columns, further demonstrating their usefulness for the reduction of uranium (U) interference in ICP-MS analysis with enhanced selectivity for Pu. Here several steps were optimised to enhance Pu recovery, reducing method blank concentration, and improving the separation efficiency through the determination of the elution profiles of U and Pu. The elimination of the complexing agent in the eluent, increased the spike recovery by improving matrix tolerance of the plasma, and simplified the separation procedure, improving throughput by 20%. The subsequent method was validated through the analysis of Certified Reference Material IAEA-384, where high accuracy and improved precision of measurement were demonstrated (measured value 114 ± 12 versus certified value 108 ± 13 Bq kg−1). Optimisation of the column separation, along with the analysis of the samples using O2 gas in ICP-MS/MS mode to mass shift Pu isotopes away from interfering molecular U ions provided a simple, robust, and cost-effective method with low achievable method detection limits of 0.18 pg kg−1 239+240Pu, applicable to the detection of ultra-trace fallout Pu in African soils

Suitability of 210Pbex, 137Cs and 239+240Pu as soil erosion tracers in western Kenya

Land degradation resulting from soil erosion is a global concern, with the greatest risk in developing countries where food and land resources can be limited. The use of fallout radionuclides (FRNs) is a proven method for determining short and medium-term rates of soil erosion, to help improve our understanding of soil erosion processes. There has been limited use of these methods in tropical Africa due to the analytical challenges associated with 137Cs, where inventories are an order of magnitude lower than in the Europe. This research aimed to demonstrate the usability of 239+240Pu as a soil erosion tracer in western Kenya compared to conventional isotopes 210Pbex and 137Cs through the determination of FRN depth profiles at reference sites. Across six reference sites 239+240Pu showed the greatest potential, with the lowest coefficient of variation and the greatest peak-to-detection limit ratio of 640 compared to 5 and 1 for 210Pbex and 137Cs respectively. Additionally, 239+240Pu was the only radionuclide to meet the ‘allowable error’ threshold, demonstrating applicability to large scale studies in Western Kenya where the selection of suitable reference sites presents a significant challenge. The depth profile of 239+240Pu followed a polynomial function, with the maximum areal activities found between depths 3 and 12 cm, where thereafter areal activities decreased exponentially. As a result, 239+240Pu is presented as a robust tracer to evaluate soil erosion patterns and amounts in western Kenya, providing a powerful tool to inform and validate mitigation strategies with improved understanding of land degradation

Changing the nutritional status of forage grass due to changing soil chemistry resulting from different land-use management in the Oroba valley, Kenya

Threats from land degradation may escalate problems of inadequate food supply and poverty that already afflict the inhabitants of Oroba valley, Nandi County in Kenya. The steepness of the farmlands along with inadequate application of sound agricultural management systems expose the area to soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, and salinization. Both crop and livestock agriculture face risks of soil degradation. Here, forage grass contributes to 60% of animal nutrients and this study investigated the micro-elemental levels of forage grass from four differently managed farms with different history of use. The grass was sampled from four differently managed plots in a randomized block design: plots 1 and 2 contained five sections(blocks), while plots 3 and 4 contained six sections. Grass samples were collected, and analysed for thirteen essential elements (Na, Mg, P, S, K, Ca, Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Se, Mo) by ICP-MS. The uptake of elements is influenced by soil pH as K(0.27), Cu(0.76), and Mo(1.17) were enhanced with a positive correlation between the levels of acidity in the soil and the concentration of elements in plants which indicated a negative to Mg, P, Ca, Fe, Zn, and Se. Soil Organic Matter contents also affects the element uptake by grass, with Mg and Zn only showing a positive correlation of 1.11 and 0.48, respectively. Land use management was the other factor that affected the nutrition status of forage mono-cropping. Continuous cultivation increases the possibility of soil erosion, indicating essential elements loss from the study area depicted by accumulation at the base of the study plots. Results from the study have shown that different land management affects the soil chemistry, hence changing grass's absorption regime for micronutrients. Cultivation agitates the mobility of essential elements, enriching the food chain with macro and micronutrients. Smart farming should check the issue of hidden hunger caused by land degradation

Novel geochemistry to determine the dynamics of land to lake transfers in the Lake Victoria basin to inform coordinated land-lake management strategies

The Winam Gulf catchment of Lake Victoria in western Kenya has historically been affected by poor land management practices leading to soil erosion, acidification and loss of organic matter. A gap in data exists to better understand the influence of soil degradation on soil-to-crop dynamics for micronutrients essential for a healthy diet. Additionally, the transfer of potentially toxic elements from land-to-lake via sediment flows and dust transfer has consequences for the lake ecosystem and human health via the food chain. Here we present geochemical data to demonstrate soil-to-sediment transfers from agricultural and urban environments for initial source apportionment analyses and reference to historical sediment inflows into the Winam Gulf from major river catchments that contribute up to 25% of total sediment inflows for the whole of Lake Victoria. Detailed geochemistry will build on previous work to model soil erosion/geochemistry in western Kenya1,2 to better inform the management of agricultural soils to reduce loss of productivity and lake ecology for the fisheries industry. Both are crucial to food security and livelihoods as key United Nations Sustainable Deliverables Goals (SDG 2,3,14) in the region, by helping to connect land and lake management stakeholders for a coordinated mitigation plan to address poor land-use management. These data are presented alongside consortia presentations detailing highly specialised chemistry using plutonium isotopes to measure the rate of soil erosion, modelling at scale soil-to-crop transfers of nutrients and changes in soil chemistry according to land clearance and farming mitigation approaches. References: 1 Humphrey et al. (2022). Evaluating spatio-temporal soil erosion dynamics in the Winam Gulf catchment, Kenya for enhanced decision making in the land-lake interface, STOTEN, 815, 151975 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151975 2 Ferreira et al. (2022). Western Soil geochemistry predictive map https://arcg.is/P580

Plutonium: A novel soil erosion tracer in Eastern Africa

Soil erosion presents a significant risk to land degradation globally, with developing countries facing the greatest risk due to rapid expansion of agriculture, sometimes onto marginal land in response to rapid increases in population as well as the limited availability of land suitable for agriculture. In this study, the usability of plutonium (Pu) to determine soil redistribution rates within the Winam gulf catchment of western Kenya was investigated at sites with differing land use and clearance scale. Fallout Radionuclide inventories (unsupported 210Pb, 137Cs and 239+240Pu) were determined across seven suitable reference sites by gamma spectroscopy and ICP-MS/MS to test the applicability of Pu as a tracer of soil erosion. The lowest variability across the reference sites was found for 239+240Pu which can be attributed to increased sensitivity in detection by ICP-MS/MS compared to gamma spectroscopy. Subsequently 239+240Pu was used as a tracer at four study sites representing different land management approaches and history of land clearance of tropical rainforest. Plutonium showed interesting spatial characteristics for land management techniques highlighting the differences between top-down mitigation strategies and bottom-up (farmer led) mitigation strategies. In short, 239+240Pu presents a valuable tool for the determination of soil erosion rates in tropical Africa to increase understanding of land degradation. Therefore, providing reliable data to help decision making in the planning of appropriate mitigation strategies. This work demonstrates the potential for interdisciplinary benefits of research to be derived from novel analytical methodology to better inform land management