Does the Reading of Different Orthographies Produce Distinct Brain Activity Patterns? An ERP Study

Orthographies vary in the degree of transparency of spelling-sound correspondence. These range from shallow orthographies with transparent grapheme-phoneme relations, to deep orthographies, in which these relations are opaque. Only a few studies have examined whether orthographic depth is reflected in brain activity. In these studies a between-language design was applied, making it difficult to isolate the aspect of orthographic depth. In the present work this question was examined using a within-subject-and-language investigation. The participants were speakers of Hebrew, as they are skilled in reading two forms of script transcribing the same oral language. One form is the shallow pointed script (with diacritics), and the other is the deep unpointed script (without diacritics). Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded while skilled readers carried out a lexical decision task in the two forms of script. A visual non-orthographic task controlled for the visual difference between the scripts (resulting from the addition of diacritics to the pointed script only). At an early visual-perceptual stage of processing (∼165 ms after target onset), the pointed script evoked larger amplitudes with longer latencies than the unpointed script at occipital-temporal sites. However, these effects were not restricted to orthographic processing, and may therefore have reflected, at least in part, the visual load imposed by the diacritics. Nevertheless, the results implied that distinct orthographic processing may have also contributed to these effects. At later stages (∼340 ms after target onset) the unpointed script elicited larger amplitudes than the pointed one with earlier latencies. As this latency has been linked to orthographic-linguistic processing and to the classification of stimuli, it is suggested that these differences are associated with distinct lexical processing of a shallow and a deep orthography

The Training of Morphological Decomposition in Word Processing and Its Effects on Literacy Skills

This study set out to examine the effects of a morpheme-based training on reading and spelling in fifth and sixth graders (N = 47), who present poor literacy skills and speak German as a second language. A computerized training, consisting of a visual lexical decision task (comprising 2,880 items, presented in 12 sessions), was designed to encourage fast morphological analysis in word processing. The children were divided between two groups: the one underwent a morpheme-based training, in which word-stems of inflections and derivations were presented for a limited duration, while their pre- and suffixes remained on screen until response. Another group received a control training consisting of the same task, except that the duration of presentation of a non-morphological unit was restricted. In a Word Disruption Task, participants read words under three conditions: morphological separation (with symbols separating between the words’ morphemes), non-morphological separation (with symbols separating between non-morphological units of words), and no-separation (with symbols presented at the beginning and end of each word). The group receiving the morpheme-based program improved more than the control group in terms of word reading fluency in the morphological condition. The former group also presented similar word reading fluency after training in the morphological condition and in the no-separation condition, thereby suggesting that the morpheme-based training contributed to the integration of morphological decomposition into the process of word recognition. At the same time, both groups similarly improved in other measures of word reading fluency. With regard to spelling, the morpheme-based training group showed a larger improvement than the control group in spelling of trained items, and a unique improvement in spelling of untrained items (untrained word-stems integrated into trained pre- and suffixes). The results further suggest some contribution of the morpheme-based training to performance in a standardized spelling task. The morpheme-based training did not, however, show any unique effect on comprehension. These results suggest that the morpheme-based training is effective in enhancing some basic literacy skill in the population examined, i.e., morphological analysis in word processing and the access to orthographic representations in spelling, with no specific effects on reading fluency and comprehension

Untersuchung des Aneignungsprozesses von visuellen Wortrepräsentationen bei Kindern mit Dyslexie

Skilled reading relies on the ability to access word representations, conceptualized as connections established between a word’s orthography, phonology and meaning in memory. This study set out to explore the process of acquisition of these representations. The central hypothesis was that dyslexic readers would present difficulties in forming and maintaining word representations in memory, presumably due to instability in processes of decoding. Their performance was compared to the performance of age-matched and reading-level-matched typical readers (n = 20 per group). The hypothesis was tested by repeatedly exposing the readers to the same target words embedded in word-lists and meaningful texts. The targets were words which the dyslexic participants had difficulty to read in a pre-test, while being part of their spoken vocabulary. The output of each encounter with a target word was analyzed. The results indicate reduced accuracy rates of dyslexic readers compared to typical readers, despite the repeated exposures to the same targets. In addition, dyslexic readers showed larger variability in types of output and higher rates of inconsistency in producing the same output across encounters with the same target. The results therefore uphold the hypothesis of a deficiency of dyslexic readers in forming and retaining word representations in reading, and point to instability in processes of decoding orthography to phonology. (DIPF/Orig.)Kompetentes Lesen stützt sich auf die Fähigkeit, auf Wortrepräsentationen, d. h. die im Gedächtnis hergestellten Verbindungen zwischen der Orthographie eines Wortes, seiner Phonologie und seiner Bedeutung, zugreifen zu können. Ziel der vorliegenden Studie ist es, den Aneignungsprozess dieser Repräsentationen zu untersuchen. Die zentrale Hypothese ist dabei, dass Kinder mit Dyslexie Probleme haben, diese Repräsentationen aufzubauen und im Gedächtnis zu speichern, wobei angenommen werden kann, dass dies auf Grund einer Instabilität während des Prozesses der Wortdekodierung erfolgt. Die Leseleistung von Kindern mit Dyslexie wurde dafür verglichen mit der Leistung von Leserinnen und Lesern gleichen Alters sowie mit Leserinnen und Lesern, die auf demselben Niveau lesen (n = 20 pro Gruppe). Getestet wurde die Hypothese, indem den Leserinnen und Leser mehrmals dieselben Zielwörter vorgelegt wurden, welche in Wortlisten und sinnvolle Texte eingebettet waren. Dabei handelte es sich um Worte, bei denen die Kinder mit Dyslexie in einem Pre-Test Leseschwierigkeiten hatten, die jedoch Teil ihres gesprochenen Vokabulars waren. Analysiert wurden die Ergebnisse der jeweiligen Konfrontationen mit einem Zielwort. Die Befunde zeigen für Kinder mit Dyslexie auch bei einer wiederholten Auseinandersetzung mit denselben Zielworten geringere Genauigkeitsraten im Vergleich zu typischen Leserinnen und Lesern. Darüber hinaus ergeben sich bei den Kindern mit Dyslexie stärkere Schwankungen in der Art der Ergebnisse und mehr Inkonsistenzen, wenn es darum geht, dasselbe Ergebnis bei mehreren Konfrontationen mit demselben Zielwort wiederzugeben. Insofern stützen die Ergebnisse die Hypothese eines Defizits beim Aufbau und der Speicherung von Wortrepräsentationen während des Lesens bei Leserinnen und Leser mit Dyslexie und weisen auf eine Instabilität im Prozess des Dekodierens von Orthographie zu Phonologie hin. (DIPF/Orig.

The training of morphological decomposition in word processing and its effects on literacy skills

This study set out to examine the effects of a morpheme-based training on reading and writing in 5th and 6th graders (N=47), who have poor literacy skills and speak German as a second language. A computerized training, consisting of a visual computerized lexical decision task (comprising 2880 inflections and derivations, presented in 12 sessions), was designed to encourage fast morphological analysis in word processing. The children were divided between two groups: the one underwent a morpheme-based training, in which word-stems of words were presented for a limited duration, while pre- and suffixes remained on screen until response. Another group received a control training consisting of the same task, except that the duration of presentation of a non-morphological unit was restricted. In a Word Disruption Task, participants read words under three conditions: morphological separation (with symbols separating between the words\u27 morphemes), non-morphological separation (with symbols separating between non-morphological units of words) and no-separation (with symbols presented at the beginning and end of each word). The group receiving the morpheme-based program improved more than the control group in terms of word reading fluency in the morphological condition. The former group also presented similar word reading fluency after training in the morphological condition and the in no-separation condition, thereby suggesting that the morpheme-based training contributed to the integration of morphological decomposition into the process of word recognition. At the same time, both groups similarly improved in other measures of word reading fluency. With regard to spelling, the morpheme-based training group showed a larger improvement than the control group in spelling of trained items, and a unique improvement in spelling of untrained items (untrained word-stems integrated into trained pre- and suffixes). The results further suggest some contribution of the morpheme-based training to performance in a standardized spelling task. The morpheme-based training did not, however, show any unique effect on comprehension. These results suggest that the morpheme-based training is effective in enhancing some basic literacy skill in the population examined, i.e. morphological analysis in word processing and the access to orthographic representations in spelling, with no specific effects on reading fluency and comprehension. (DIPF/Orig.

The training of morphological decomposition in word processing and its effects on literacy skills

This study set out to examine the effects of a morpheme-based training on reading and writing in 5th and 6th graders (N=47), who have poor literacy skills and speak German as a second language. A computerized training, consisting of a visual computerized lexical decision task (comprising 2880 inflections and derivations, presented in 12 sessions), was designed to encourage fast morphological analysis in word processing. The children were divided between two groups: the one underwent a morpheme-based training, in which word-stems of words were presented for a limited duration, while pre- and suffixes remained on screen until response. Another group received a control training consisting of the same task, except that the duration of presentation of a non-morphological unit was restricted. In a Word Disruption Task, participants read words under three conditions: morphological separation (with symbols separating between the words\u27 morphemes), non-morphological separation (with symbols separating between non-morphological units of words) and no-separation (with symbols presented at the beginning and end of each word). The group receiving the morpheme-based program improved more than the control group in terms of word reading fluency in the morphological condition. The former group also presented similar word reading fluency after training in the morphological condition and the in no-separation condition, thereby suggesting that the morpheme-based training contributed to the integration of morphological decomposition into the process of word recognition. At the same time, both groups similarly improved in other measures of word reading fluency. With regard to spelling, the morpheme-based training group showed a larger improvement than the control group in spelling of trained items, and a unique improvement in spelling of untrained items (untrained word-stems integrated into trained pre- and suffixes). The results further suggest some contribution of the morpheme-based training to performance in a standardized spelling task. The morpheme-based training did not, however, show any unique effect on comprehension. These results suggest that the morpheme-based training is effective in enhancing some basic literacy skill in the population examined, i.e. morphological analysis in word processing and the access to orthographic representations in spelling, with no specific effects on reading fluency and comprehension. (DIPF/Orig.

In search of methods enhancing fluency in reading. An examination of the relations between time constraints and processes of reading in readers of German

The attainment of fluency in reading is a major difficulty for reading-disabled people. Manipulations applied on the presentation of texts, leading to "on-line" effects on reading (i.e., while texts are manipulated), are one direction of examinations in search of methods affecting reading. The imposing of time constraints, by deleting one letter after the other from texts presented on a computer screen, has been established as such a method. In an attempt to further understand its nature, we tested the relations between time constraints and processes of reading: phonological decoding of small orthographic units and the addressing of orthographic representations from the mental lexicon. We also examined whether the type of orthographic unit deleted (lexical, sublexical, or nonlexical unit) has any additional effect. Participants were German fifth graders with (n = 29) or without (n = 34) reading disability. Time constraints enhanced fluency in reading in both groups, and to a similar extent, across conditions. Comprehension was unimpaired. These results place the very principle of time constraints, regardless of the orthographic unit manipulated, as a critical factor affecting fluency in reading. However, phonological decoding explained a significant amount of variance in fluency in reading across all conditions in reading-disabled children, whereas the addressing of orthographic representations was the consistent predictor of fluency in reading in regular readers. These results indicate a qualitative difference in the processes explaining the variance in fluency in reading in regular and reading-disabled readers and suggest that time constraints might not have an effect on the relations between these processes and reading performance. (DIPF/Orig.

The relations of early phonological awareness, rapid‐naming and speed of processing with the development of spelling and reading: a longitudinal examination

Phonological awareness has been found to be strongly related to spelling. Findings on the relations between rapid-naming and spelling are less consistent and have been suggested to be shared with speed of processing. This study set out to examine these relations in spelling and reading of Hebrew. Children attending the regular educational system were followed longitudinally (N = 70): phonological awareness, rapid-naming and speed of processing were tested in kindergarten and in grade 1, and spelling and reading were tested in grade 2. Kindergarten and grade 1 rapid-naming predicted spelling and word reading, and grade 1 phonological awareness predicted spelling, word reading and decoding. Speed of processing was an insignificant predictor. The findings extend the role of phonological awareness in spelling to an orthography with partial phonological representations and concurrently suggest weak relations. The results further suggest a link between rapid-naming and orthographic knowledge, which may not be explained by shared variance with speed of processing

Reading literacy. Reading competencies in Germany and underlying cognitive skills

There is a general consensus that reading competencies, being acore element of basic education, are an essential prerequisite for the acquisition, organization, and application of knowledge in various subjects and domains. Thus, reading competencies represent akey factor for educational and professional success, lifelong learning, and social participation. In the first part of this article, we summarize the main findings of recent international and national large-scale assessment studies suggesting that asignificant proportion of children, adolescents, and adults in Germany do not attain asufficient level of reading competence to understand and learn from texts. Because there is evidence that ashare of these poor readers may have limited basic reading abilities that underlie text comprehension, in the second part of this article we review meta-analyses on the relations between cognitive skills and reading competence. Finally, we discuss challenges for school and adult education, and mention possible perspectives for future research