Creating small-area deprivation indices: a guide for stages and options

Small-area composite measures (such as for deprivation, geographic access or green space) have become increasing popular among both researchers and policy makers and are frequently used to compare or rank areas. Because of their seeming simplicity and wide appeal, it is important to set out for researchers and users the different stages and options that underlie the development of composite indices. Using small area deprivation measures as an example, this article reviews the key decisions faced by researchers from choosing the data and variables to validation and measuring uncertainty. Our aim is to guide researchers in the planning and following through with the process of developing a small-area measure. To date, the different choices are often not considered and the methodological decisions tend to be based on tradition or convenience. While there is no widely accepted framework for choosing between methods, we argue that researchers should compare different methods and justify their decisions at each stage of the process. In particular, more emphasis should be put on validating measures for different population subgroups

Public Involvement & Engagement in health inequalities research on COVID-19 pandemic: a case study of CIDACS/FIOCRUZ BAHIA

Introduction Health inequalities in Brazil have deepened on Covid-19 pandemic, and the most vulnerable people were the more affected. A multidisciplinary team from Cidacs/Fiocruz Bahia developed a Social Disparities Index for Covid-19 (IDS-COVID-19) to support the evaluation of effects of health inequalities on the pandemic in Brazil. Public Involvement and Engagement were the pillars of this research because they allowed us to access first hand experiences about the social context in our country. Objectives This paper aims to describe our Public Involvement and Engagement experience by analysing our challenges, strategies, activities, results, and lessons learned during the construction of IDS-COVID-19. Methods The basis of the IDS-Covid-19 public engagement model was the participation of different social groups through methods and techniques that allow dialogue. Several activities and communication products supported the continuous interactions. Another guideline was the inclusion and the welcoming of participants from the beginning of the project to ensure that the participant's contributions could drive decision-making about the research. Results Participants made several contributions to the research as a new layer of information to the Index, and improvements were made to the interactive panel. They also compromised to support the dissemination and use of the product. Eight representatives of community groups and 29 policymakers participated in our engagement activities during the project. More than 500 people were in our open webinars. In addition, more than 140 news items about IDS-Covid-19 were published in national and international media. Conclusions We highlight as lessons learned the adaptation of some dissemination formats to the public, and the necessity of being flexible and accessible to participants. We strengthened the relationship with relevant stakeholders by exploring individual conversations by phone, WhatsApp, email, and interviews to produce a documentary that registered this whole experience. Cidacs/Fiocruz Bahia has also embedded public engagement and involvement in the study agenda

Differentials in death count records by databases in Brazil in 2010

OBJECTIVE To compare the death counts from three sources of information on mortality available in Brazil in 2010, the Mortality Information System (SIM - Sistema de Informações sobre Mortalidade ), Civil Registration Statistic System (RC - Sistema de Estatísticas de Resgistro Civil ), and the 2010 Demographic Census at various geographical levels, and to confirm the association between municipal socioeconomic characteristics and the source which showed the highest death count. METHODS This is a descriptive and comparative study of raw data on deaths in the SIM, RC and 2010 Census databases, the latter held in Brazilian states and municipalities between August 2009 and July 2010. The percentage of municipalities was confirmed by the database showing the highest death count. The association between the source of the highest death count and socioeconomic indicators - the Índice de Privação Brasileiro (IBP – Brazilian Deprivation Index) and Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano Municipal (IHDM – Municipal Human Development Index) - was performed by bivariate choropleth and Moran Local Index of Spatial Association (LISA) cluster maps. RESULTS Confirmed that the SIM is the database with the highest number of deaths counted for all Brazilian macroregions, except the North, in which the highest coverage was from the 2010 Census. Based on the indicators proposed, in general, the Census showed a higher coverage of deaths than the SIM and the RC in the most deprived (highest IBP values) and less developed municipalities (lowest IDHM values) in the country. CONCLUSION The results highlight regional inequalities in how the databases chosen for this study cover death records, and the importance of maintaining the issue of mortality on the basic census questionnaire

Time trends and social inequalities in child malnutrition: nationwide estimates from Brazil's food and nutrition surveillance system, 2009-2017

Objective In Brazil, national estimates of childhood malnutrition have not been updated since 2006. The use of health information systems is an important complementary data source for analysing time trends on health and nutrition. This study aimed to examine temporal trends and socio-demographic inequalities in the prevalence of malnutrition in children attending primary health care services between 2009 and 2017. Design Time trends study based on data from Brazil's Food and Nutrition Surveillance System. Malnutrition prevalence (stunting, wasting, overweight and double burden) was annually estimated by socio-demographic variables. Prais-Winsten regression models were used to analyse time trends. Annual percent change (APC) and 95 % CI were calculated. Setting Primary health care services, Brazil. Participants Children under 5 years old. Results In total, 15,239,753 children were included. An increase in the prevalence of overweight (APC = 3·4 %; P = 0·015) and a decline in the prevalence of wasting (-6·2 %; P = 0·002) were observed. The prevalence of stunting (-3·2 %, P = 0·359) and double burden (-1·4 %, P = 0·630) had discrete and non-significant reductions. Despite the significant reduction in the prevalence of undernutrition among children in the most vulnerable subgroups (black, conditional cash transfer's recipients and residents of poorest and less developed areas), high prevalence of stunting and wasting persist alongside a disproportionate increase in the prevalence of overweight in these groups. Conclusions The observed pattern in stunting (high and persistent prevalence) and increase in overweight elucidate setbacks in advances already observed in previous periods and stresses the need for social and political strategies to address multiple forms of malnutrition

Incidence of and Factors Associated With Leprosy Among Household Contacts of Patients With Leprosy in Brazil.

Importance: Despite progress toward reducing global incidence, leprosy control remains a challenge in low- and middle-income countries. Objective: To estimate new case detection rates of leprosy among household contacts of patients with previously diagnosed leprosy and to investigate its associated risk factors. Design, Setting, and Participants: This population-based cohort study included families registered in the 100 Million Brazilian Cohort linked with nationwide registries of leprosy; data were collected from January 1, 2007, through December 31, 2014. Household contacts of patients with a previous diagnosis of leprosy from each household unit were followed up from the time of detection of the primary case to the time of detection of a subsequent case or until December 31, 2014. Data analysis was performed from May to December 2018. Exposures: Clinical characteristics of the primary case and sociodemographic factors of the household contact. Main Outcomes and Measures: Incidence of leprosy, estimated as the new case detection rate of leprosy per 100 000 household contacts at risk (person-years at risk). The association between occurrence of a subsequent leprosy case and the exposure risk factors was assessed using multilevel mixed-effects logistic regressions allowing for state- and household-specific random effects. Results: Among 42 725 household contacts (22 449 [52.5%] female; mean [SD] age, 22.4 [18.5] years) of 17 876 patients detected with leprosy, the new case detection rate of leprosy was 636.3 (95% CI, 594.4-681.1) per 100 000 person-years at risk overall and 521.9 (95% CI, 466.3-584.1) per 100 000 person-years at risk among children younger than 15 years. Household contacts of patients with multibacillary leprosy had higher odds of developing leprosy (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 1.48; 95% CI, 1.17-1.88), and the odds increased among contacts aged 50 years or older (adjusted OR, 3.11; 95% CI, 2.03-4.76). Leprosy detection was negatively associated with illiterate or preschool educational level (adjusted OR, 0.59; 95% CI, 0.38-0.92). For children, the odds were increased among boys (adjusted OR, 1.70; 95% CI, 1.20-2.42). Conclusions and Relevance: The findings in this Brazilian population-based cohort study suggest that the household contacts of patients with leprosy may have increased risk of leprosy, especially in households with existing multibacillary cases and older contacts. Public health interventions, such as contact screening, that specifically target this population appear to be needed

Time trends and social inequalities in infant and young child feeding practices: national estimates from Brazil’s Food and Nutrition Surveillance System, 2008–2019

Abstract Objective: To describe the time trends and socio-economic inequalities in infant and young child feeding practices in accordance with the Brazilian deprivation index (BDI). Design: This time-series study analysed the prevalence of multiple breast-feeding and complementary feeding indicators based on data from the Brazilian Food and Nutrition Surveillance System, 2008–2019. Prais–Winsten regression models were used to analyse time trends. Annual percent change (APC) and 95 % CI were calculated. Setting: Primary health care services, Brazil. Participants: Totally, 911 735 Brazilian children under 2 years old. Results: Breast-feeding and complementary feeding practices differed between the extreme BDI quintiles. Overall, the results were more favourable in the municipalities with less deprivation (Q1). Improvements in some complementary feeding indicators were observed over time and evidenced such disparities: minimum dietary diversity (Q1: Δ 47·8–52·2 %, APC + 1·44, P = 0·006), minimum acceptable diet (Q1: Δ 34·5–40·5 %, APC + 5·17, P = 0·004) and consumption of meat and/or eggs (Q1: Δ 59·7–80·3 %, APC + 6·26, P < 0·001; and Q5: Δ 65·7–70·7 %, APC + 2·20, P = 0·041). Stable trends in exclusive breast-feeding and decreasing trends in the consumption of sweetened drinks and ultra-processed foods were also observed regardless the level of the deprivation. Conclusions: Improvements in some complementary food indicators were observed over time. However, the improvements were not equally distributed among the BDI quintiles, with children from the municipalities with less deprivation benefiting the most

Combined association of obesity and other cardiometabolic diseases with severe COVID-19 outcomes: a nationwide cross-sectional study of 21 773 Brazilian adult and elderly inpatients.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the combined association of obesity, diabetes mellitus (DM) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) with severe COVID-19 outcomes in adult and elderly inpatients. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study based on registry data from Brazil's influenza surveillance system. SETTING: Public and private hospitals across Brazil. PARTICIPANTS: Eligible population included 21 942 inpatients aged ≥20 years with positive reverse transcription-PCR test for SARS-CoV-2 until 9 June 2020. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Severe COVID-19 outcomes were non-invasive and invasive mechanical ventilation use, intensive care unit (ICU) admission and death. Multivariate analyses were conducted separately for adults (20-59 years) and elders (≥60 years) to test the combined association of obesity (without and with DM and/or CVD) and degrees of obesity with each outcome. RESULTS: A sample of 8848 adults and 12 925 elders were included. Among adults, obesity with DM and/or CVD showed higher prevalence of invasive (prevalence ratio 3.76, 95% CI 2.82 to 5.01) and non-invasive mechanical ventilation use (2.06, 1.58 to 2.69), ICU admission (1.60, 1.40 to 1.83) and death (1.79, 1.45 to 2.21) compared with the group without obesity, DM and CVD. In elders, obesity alone (without DM and CVD) had the highest prevalence of ICU admission (1.40, 1.07 to 1.82) and death (1.67, 1.00 to 2.80). In both age groups, obesity alone and combined with DM and/or CVD showed higher prevalence in all outcomes than DM and/or CVD. A dose-response association was observed between obesity and death in adults: class I 1.32 (1.05 to 1.66), class II 1.41 (1.06 to 1.87) and class III 1.77 (1.35 to 2.33). CONCLUSIONS: The combined association of obesity, diabetes and/or CVD with severe COVID-19 outcomes may be stronger in adults than in elders. Obesity alone and combined with DM and/or CVD had more impact on the risk of COVID-19 severity than DM and/or CVD in both age groups. The study also supports an independent relationship of obesity with severe outcomes, including a dose-response association between degrees of obesity and death in adults

Differentials in death count records by databases in Brazil in 2010

Objective: To compare the death counts from three sources of information on mortality available in Brazil in 2010, the Mortality Information System (SIM – Sistema de Informações sobre Mortalidade ), Civil Registration Statistic System (RC – Sistema de Estatísticas de Resgistro Civil ), and the 2010 Demographic Census at various geographical levels, and to confirm the association between municipal socioeconomic characteristics and the source which showed the highest death count. Methods: This is a descriptive and comparative study of raw data on deaths in the SIM, RC and 2010 Census databases, the latter held in Brazilian states and municipalities between August 2009 and July 2010. The percentage of municipalities was confirmed by the database showing the highest death count. The association between the source of the highest death count and socioeconomic indicators – the Índice de Privação Brasileiro (IBP – Brazilian Deprivation Index) and Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano Municipal (IHDM – Municipal Human Development Index) – was performed by bivariate choropleth and Moran Local Index of Spatial Association (LISA) cluster maps. Results: Confirmed that the SIM is the database with the highest number of deaths counted for all Brazilian macroregions, except the North, in which the highest coverage was from the 2010 Census. Based on the indicators proposed, in general, the Census showed a higher coverage of deaths than the SIM and the RC in the most deprived (highest IBP values) and less developed municipalities (lowest IDHM values) in the country. Conclusion: The results highlight regional inequalities in how the databases chosen for this study cover death records, and the importance of maintaining the issue of mortality on the basic census questionnaire

[Covid-19 in the Northeast of Brazil: from lockdown to the relaxation of social distancing measures].

Even in the period when the Covid-19 pandemic was on the rise in the Northeast of Brazil, the relaxation of social distancing measures was introduced. The scope of the study is to assess, in the light of the epidemiological-sanitary situation in the region, the suitability of relaxation of social distancing measures. Based on the WHO guidelines for relaxation of social distancing, operational indicators were created and analyzed for each guideline in the context of the Northeast. To analyze the behavior of the epidemic, according to selected indicators, Joinpoint trend analysis techniques, heat maps, rate ratios and time trends between capitals and the state interior were compared. The weekly growth peak of the epidemic occurred in May-July 2020 (epidemiological weeks 19 to 31). In most capitals, there was no simultaneous downward trend in the number of cases and deaths in the 14 days prior to flexibilization. In all states the number of tests performed was insufficient. In epidemiological week 24, the state percentages of ICU/Covid-19 bed occupancy were close to or above 70%. The epidemiological situation of the nine Northeastern state capitals analyzed here did not meet criteria and parameters recommended by the World Health Organization for the relaxation of social distancing measures

Internação por diarréia aguda em menores de 2 anos no Brasil: fatores de risco e efetividade da vacina oral monovalente contra rotavirus humano.

A diarréia é uma das causas mais freqüentes de atendimentos ambulatoriais e de hospitalização em menores de 5 anos. Bactérias e o rotavírus são os principais agentes etiológicos envolvidos nas diarréias graves, sendo o rotavírus responsável por 22% a 38% das admissões hospitalares. Para abordar o tema sobre a internação de crianças brasileiras menores de 2 anos devido a diarréia foram realizados três estudos casos-controles com base hospitalar. Inicialmente, foi estimada a associação dos fatores de risco e a internação por diarréia aguda (exceto àquela causada por rotavírus) de acordo com as rotas de transmissão dos agentes etiológicos, as várias fontes de infecção e as condições de vida das populações. Foi demonstrado que os principais fatores de risco associados à internação por diarréia foram a falta de esgotamento sanitário e de água de boa qualidade e ter uma ou mais internações prévias devido à diarréia. Em relação à diarréia aguda causada por rotavírus, a OMS recomenda o uso de duas vacinas licenciadas no mundo (Rotarix® e RotaTeq®). A vacina oral monovalente contra rotavirus (G1P[8], Rotarix®) foi introduzida no Programa Nacional de Imunização do Brasil em 2006. A eficácia e efetividade da vacina variam entre países com renda alta e baixa, embora exista forte evidência de proteção cruzada para os genótipos G1-G4 e G9. Avaliamos a efetividade global e genótipo-específica da vacina oral monovalente na prevenção de internação de crianças brasileiras com diarréia causada por rotavirus. Além disso, estimamos a efetividade da vacina global e genótipo-específica por tempo de vacinação após a segunda dose da vacina (até dois anos) e EV para as Regiões brasileiras. Elevadas efetividades geral e genótipo-específica da vacina foram observadas, mesmo num contexto de grande diversidade genotípica e com predominância do genótipo G2P[4]. A duração da proteção global e genótipo-específica da vacina permaneceu até dois anos e foi maior para G1P[8] do que para G2P[4]. Por outro lado, consideramos plausível que a EV poderia variar em diferentes populações e em diferentes períodos de tempo, mediante a grande diversidade genotípica, a ocorrência de genótipos incomuns, de combinações mistas de G e P e de emergência de novas cepas advindas de combinações inter-espécies (homem e animal). Analisamos a EV estratificada por Regiões brasileiras e ficou demonstrado que a EV para a Região Norte foi similar à EV global. Porém a EV para as outras Regiões foi menor, talvez devido ao pequeno número de casos. Baseado nos resultados dos estudos nós recomendamos: 1) implementar ações voltadas para o domínio público (ambiente, saneamento, higiene na comunidade e acesso a serviços de saúde) para reduzir a morbidade por diarréia; 2) a continuidade do uso da vacina oral monovalente no Programa Nacional de Imunização; e 3) o monitoramento de genótipos para detecção precoce de cepas novas e incomuns. Além disso, novos estudos precisam ser conduzidos para avaliar variações da efetividade da vacina entre as Regiões, as sub-regiões e as áreas mais vulneráveis do Brasil. Será importante realizar estudos de custo-efetividade para subsidiar a política nacional de imunização.Diarrhea has been a frequent reason of visits to the health services and hospitalization among children under five. Bacteria and rotavirus are the main agents involved in severe diarrhea, in which rotavirus is responsible from 22% to 38% of children hospital admissions. To address the issue of hospitalization of Brazilian children under 2 years due to diarrhea, we conducted three hospital based case-control study. Initially, we aimed to estimate the association of risk factors and acute diarrhea hospitalization (except those caused by rotavirus) according to the routes of transmission of etiologic agents, the various sources of infection and the living conditions of populations. It was demonstrated that the main risk factors were lack of sewage and water of good quality, and already having one or more hospitalizations due to diarrhea. In relation to the rotavirus acute diarrhea, the World Health Organization has been recommended the use of two licensed vaccines worldwide (Rotarix ® and RotaTeq ®). The oral monovalent rotavirus vaccine (G1[P8] strain, Rotarix®) was introduced in Brazilian National Immunization Program in 2006. The vaccine efficacy and effectiveness vary between high and low income countries, although there is strong evidence of cross-protection for G1-G4 and G9 genotypes. We evaluated overall and genotype-specific oral monovalent rotavirus VE in preventing RV-A diarrhea hospital admission of Brazilian children. Also, we estimated overall and genotype-specific VE by time since second dose vaccination (up to two years) and VE according to Brazilian Regions. High overall and genotype-specific VE were observed, even though there was a great diversity of rotavirus genotypes circulating in Brazil and a predominance of G2P[4] genotype. The overall and genotype-specific VE lasted for two years after second dose vaccination and it was higher for G1P[8] than G2P[4]. Besides, we considered that it was plausible that RV-A VE could vary in different populations (Regions) and in different periods of time, since there was a great genotype diversity, an occurrence of unusual genotypes, mixed combinations of G and P and emergence of new strains from combinations of inter-species (human and animal). We analyzed the VE for Brazilian Regions and we demonstrated that the VE for Northern Region was similar to the overall VE. However, the VE for other Regions was lower than VE for Northern Region, maybe because of the small number of the cases. Based on the findings of the studies we recommend: 1) to implement actions of the public domain (environment, sanitation, hygiene in the community and access to health services) to reduce the diarrhea morbidity; 2) the continued use of oral monovalent rotavirus vaccine in the National Immunization Program; and 3) the monitoring for early detection of unusual and novel rotavirus genotypes. In addition, new studies should be conducted to evaluate the variations of rotavirus VE in different Regions, sub-Regions and vulnerable areas in Brazil. It might be useful to conduct cost-effectiveness studies to inform national immunization policy