Conceptions of musical understanding

Music can be understood in many ways. This has important implications for music education. The research reported here explored how groups of people conceptualise musical understanding and what they believe supports its acquisition. In this study 463 participants completed two statements: "Musical understanding is" and "You learn to understand music through". Understanding music was viewed as complex and multidimensional with two overarching themes: personal musical understanding in context and understanding as process, with 10 main sub-themes of understanding: communication, kinaesthetic, emotional, personal, knowledge about music, critical evaluation, musical elements, analysis and comparison of music, internal representations, and creating music. Understanding was believed to be acquired through love and enjoyment of music, physical responses, emotional engagement, analytic processes, active engagement with music, education or guidance in formal or informal contexts, exposure to music, and listening. A model is set out illustrating the different ways in which it is possible to understand music and how these various understandings can be attained and supported

"A Bed of Nails": Professional Musicians' Accounts of the Experience of Performance Anxiety From a Phenomenological Perspective

Most investigations of musical performance anxiety have employed quantitative methodologies. Whereas such methodologies can provide useful insights into the measurable aspects of the experience in a larger group of participants, the complexity, subtlety and individuality of the emotional experience and the importance of the individual's interpretation of it are often overlooked. This study employed a phenomenological approach to investigate the lived, subjective experience of performance anxiety, as described in professional musicians' narratives. Semi-structured interviews with four professional musicians (two males, two females) specializing in Western classical and jazz music genres were conducted and analyzed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). The analysis revealed the presence of four overarching themes: (1) Intensity of performance anxiety experience, (2) perceived effects, (3) development of coping strategies, and (4) achieving release from anxiety. Findings suggest that the lived experience of performance anxiety is multifaceted, characterized by a physical and a psychological dimension. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis is a useful research tool that can facilitate our understanding of the subjective experience of performance anxiety (how it is felt and understood at an individual level) and can thus be useful in the development of tailor-made intervention programs for musicians

Relationships between practice, motivation, and examination outcomes

While there has been a great deal of research on instrumental practice and the nature of motivation to engage with music making, there has been relatively little that has considered the relationship of these with instrumental examination outcomes. This research aimed to address this issue. A total of 2,131 young musicians, aged 6–19, across a wide range of expertise, with a range of examination outcomes responded to a series of statements on a 7-point Likert scale relating to practice and motivation. Those merely awarded a pass grade in their examinations tended to undertake the least practice. Factor analysis revealed seven factors relating to practice and six to motivation. Multivariate analysis of variance showed that there were statistically significant differences between those with different examination outcomes in relation to the organization of practice, the use of recordings and the metronome, the adoption of analytic strategies, social life, and self-belief in musical ability. Students who received merely a pass grade in their examination responded least positively to these statements. Those who had failed were most likely to adopt ineffective practice strategies and were less likely to enjoy performing, playing, lessons, and practice. The findings are discussed in relation to earlier research

PLAT 16(2) 2017: Introduction to the Special Issue on Evidence-based Teaching (EBT): Examples from Learning and Teaching Psychology.

This special issue includes a review, two articles, and three reports. Schwieren, Barenberg, and Dutke focused on the testing effect which demonstrates that taking tests during the learning phase facilitates later retrieval of the tested material from long-term memory, compared to non-tested learning material. Although hundreds of studies have explored the validity, critical conditions, and theoretical explanations of this effect (for a review see, for example, Rowland, 2014), little is known about the application and effectiveness of practice testing in the teaching of psychology. After an extensive literature search, Schwieren et al. located 19 studies investigating the testing effect in psychology classes. Their meta-analysis yielded a significant positive mean effect size comparable to those found in meta-analyses, which included studies from other learning domains. The authors concluded that practice testing supports learning also in psychology classrooms

Are there differences in practice depending on the instrument played?

There has been little research on instrument differences in the length and nature of instrumental practice or how these may interact with level of expertise. This paper aimed to address this issue. A total of 3,325 young people ranging in level of expertise from beginner to the level required for entry to higher education conservatoire completed a questionnaire which consisted of a number of statements relating to time spent practicing, practicing strategies, organization of practice, and motivation to practice with a seven-point rating scale. Data were analyzed in relation to nine levels of expertise. Factor analysis revealed seven factors which were used to make comparisons between those playing different classical instruments. The findings showed that those playing keyboard instruments practiced the most, followed by strings, brass, and woodwind. There were relatively few statistically significant instrument differences in practice strategies. Where there were differences it was the woodwind players who tended to adopt less effective strategies. There were some interactions between level of expertise and practice which generally showed no clear patterns suggesting complexity in the development of musical expertise in relation to different instruments. The findings are discussed in terms of possible reasons for these differences

Gender differences in musical motivation at different levels of expertise

Recently, models have been developed that recognise the complexity of motivation. These set out the interactions that occur between environmental (cultural, institutional, familial, educational) and internal factors (cognition and affect) enhancing or reducing motivation. Despite this we know very little about gender differences in motivation in relation to playing an instrument. The current study aimed to address this issue, exploring gender differences in motivation and whether these changed as expertise developed. A total of 3325 children ranging in level of expertise from beginner through to Grade 8 level in independent instrumental music examinations completed a questionnaire that included a seven-point Likert scale with statements exploring different aspects of motivation. A principal components analysis was undertaken and six factors emerged: support and social affirmation; social life and enjoyment of musical activities; enjoyment of performing; self-beliefs; enjoyment of lessons, playing and practise; and disliking practise. The only statistically significant gender difference was in relation to self-beliefs with the boys consistently scoring higher. Further research is needed to establish why this is the case. The findings have major implications for education

Singing and social inclusion

There is a growing body of neurological, cognitive, and social psychological research to suggest the possibility of positive transfer effects from structured musical engagement. In particular, there is evidence to suggest that engagement in musical activities may impact on social inclusion (sense of self and of being socially integrated). Tackling social exclusion and promoting social inclusion are common concerns internationally, such as in the UK and the EC, and there are many diverse Government ministries and agencies globally that see the arts in general and music in particular as a key means by which social needs can be addressed. As part of a wider evaluation of a national, Government-sponsored music education initiative for Primary-aged children in England (“Sing Up”), opportunity was taken by the authors, at the request of the funders, to assess any possible relationship between (a) children's developing singing behavior and development and (b) their social inclusion (sense of self and of being socially integrated). Subsequently, it was possible to match data from n = 6087 participants, drawn from the final 3 years of data collection (2008–2011), in terms of each child's individually assessed singing ability (based on their singing behavior of two well-known songs to create a “normalized singing score”) and their written responses to a specially-designed questionnaire that included a set of statements related to children's sense of being socially included to which the children indicated their level of agreement on a seven-point Likert scale. Data analyses suggested that the higher the normalized singing development rating, the more positive the child's self-concept and sense of being socially included, irrespective of singer age, sex and ethnicity

Are there gender differences in instrumental music practice?

This research aimed to consider whether there were gender differences in the amount of practice undertaken by boys and girls, the practice strategies adopted and motivation to practise. A sample of 2027 girls and 1225 boys aged 6-19 years, ranging in level of expertise from beginner through to conservatory entrance level, playing instruments representative of the classical and popular instruments played in the UK completed a self-report Likert scale questionnaire. There were no statistically significant gender differences in weekly practice time or motivation to practise. Factor analysis of statements relating to practice revealed seven factors. There were statistically significant gender differences in relation to the adoption of systematic practice strategies (girls were more systematic), concentration (boys perceived they had higher levels of concentration) and immediate correction of errors (girls reported more immediate correction). There were no statistically significant gender differences in relation to the organisation of practice, the use of recordings and a metronome, the use of analytic strategies, and the adoption of ineffective practice strategies although for this factor there was a statistically significant interaction between gender and level of expertise

Changes in motivation as expertise develops: Relationships with musical aspirations

Recent models of musical motivation have recognised the complex interactions which occur between environmental (cultural, institutional, familial, educational) and internal factors (cognition and affect) in enhancing or reducing motivation. Much previous research has been small scale and not taken account of long term musical aspirations. This article aims to address these issues exploring changes in motivation as expertise develops with a large sample of learners. A total of 3,325 young musicians, aged 6–19 playing a wide range of instruments participated. They represented nine levels of expertise ranging from beginner to higher education conservatoire entry level. Level of expertise was established in terms of the most recent graded independent instrumental examination taken. They were asked to respond to a series of statements on a 7-point Likert scale. The statements focused on well-established elements of motivation including: self-beliefs; enjoyment of musical activities; enjoyment of performance; level of support received from parents, friends and teachers; attitudes towards playing an instrument and perceptions of its value; and beliefs about the importance of musical ability. Participants were also asked to respond to statements about their long term musical aspirations. An exploratory factor analysis provided the basis for the development of a motivational scale which included five sub-scales: social support and affirmation; social life and the value of playing an instrument; enjoyment of performing; self-belief in musical ability; and enjoyment of instrumental musical activities. There were linear trends for each of the five sub-scales in relation to level of expertise with the exception of social support and affirmation. The five sub-scales collectively predicted a composite score relating to aspirations with a multiple R of .64

Concepts of Ideal Musicians and Teachers: Ideal Selves and Possible Selves

The development of expertise in music requires sustained, intensive commitment to long-term goals. These goals are underpinned by concepts that aspiring musicians formulate, with regard to their musical ideals as well as their musical possible selves. In this chapter we will explore the concepts of ideal musicians articulated by higher education music students and professional musicians. We will, furthermore, consider concepts of ideal teachers, focusing on how teachers might support students in mediating the space between their ‘ideal’ and possible musical selves