Inequalities in health, does health care matter? Social inequalities in mortality in Europe, with a special focus on the role of the health care system

The international evidence on socioeconomic inequalities in health is compelling: in all European countries, people who live in disadvantaged circumstances have poorer health, more disability and shorter lives than those who are more affluent. Also, the health of migrants is often poorer compared to the health status of the host population, particularly among some ethnic groups and for some conditions. Poorer access to health services and lower quality of services provided to disadvantaged populations may potentially contribute to the explanation of inequalities in health. Knowledge of these shortcomings can be used by policy makers as potential entry points for improvements in population health and for reductions of socioeconomic and ethnic inequalities in health. The research underlying this thesis aims to contribute to the discussion on the role that the health care system plays in socioeconomic and ethnic inequalities in health. Specifically, we aim to measure the magnitude of socioeconomic and ethnic inequalities related to the functioning of the health care system. We do so by estimating the levels of inequalities in avoidable mortality, utilization and quality of health services. The following specific research questions are addressed: 1) What is the magnitude of socioeconomic and ethnic inequalities in mortality in different European countries? 2) What is the magnitude of socioeconomic and ethnic inequalities in mortality from causes that are related to the functioning of health care in Europe? 3) What is the magnitude of socioeconomic and ethnic inequalities in the utilization and quality of specific health care services

Seksueel overdraagbare aandoeningen, waaronder HIV, in Nederland in 2007

Net als in 2006 was chlamydia in 2007 de meest gediagnosticeerde bacterikle geslachtsziekte in de soacentra, vooral bij jongeren. Het percentage positieve chlamydiatesten nder heteroseksuele mannen en vrouwen daalde enigszins, voor het eerst sinds vier jaar (van 10,6% naar 10,1%). In 2006 stabiliseerde dit percentage bij mannen die seks hebben met mannen (MSM), en die trend zette door in 2007. Het percentage positieve gonorroe-, syfilis- en hivtesten nam net als voorgaande jaren af in 2007 (respectievelijk 2,4%, 0,9% en ,5%). Deze infecties werden het meest gediagnosticeerd bij MSM. In 2007 zijn er 306 nieuwe hivdiagnoses gesteld in de soacentra, ongeveer een derde van de 864 hivpositieven die dat jaar landelijk in de hivcentra zijn gemeld. Eind 2007 waren in totaal 14.019 personen in Nederland met hiv geregistreerd. Het aandeel van MSM onder de nieuw hivinfecties nam in 2007 verder toe. Net als eerdere jaren werd in de soacentra bij MSM die bekend zijn met hun positieve hivstatus vaak nog een andere geslachtsziekte gevonden (45%). In deze groep is sinds 2004 regelmatig LGV, een agressieve variant van chlamydia, en sinds 2007 hepatitis C gediagnosticeerd. Versterkte surveillance en innovatieve interventies zijn nodig om verdere verspreiding onder MSM en naar andere groepen te voorkomen. Onder bepaalde migrantengroepen in Nederland (onder andere afkomstig uit Suriname, de Nederlandse Antillen en Aruba) komen hiv, chlamydia, gonorroe en syfilis relatief vaker voor dan onder autochtone Nederlanders. Ook deze constatering vraagt om vernieuwende maatregelen die op de bevolkingsgroepen zijn toegespitst. De soacentra bieden soazorg aan hoogrisicogroepen. In 2007 hebben ruim 78.000 personen zich daar laten testen, een toename van 13% ten opzichte van 2006. Net als in 2006 was chlamydia in 2007 de meest gediagnosticeerde bacterikle geslachtsziekte in de soacentra, vooral bij jongeren. Het percentage positieve chlamydiatesten onder heteroseksuele mannen en vrouwen daalde enigszins, voor het eerst sinds vier jaar (van 10,6% naar 10,1%). In 2006 stabiliseerde dit percentage bij mannen die seks hebben met mannen (MSM), en die trend zette door in 2007. Het percentage positieve gonorroe-, syfilis- en hivtesten nam net als voorgaande jaren af in 2007 (respectievelijk 2,4%, 0,9% en 0,5%). Deze infecties werden het meest gediagnosticeerd bij MSM.In 2007, chlamydia was the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infection (STI) diagnosed in Dutch STI centres. Similar to previous years, infections were reported especially in young heterosexuals. The proportion of positive chlamydia tests among heterosexual men and women decreased slightly for the first time in four years (from 10.6% to 10.1%). In 2006, this proportion had stabilized in men who have sex with men (MSM) with the trend continuing in 2007. The positivity rate for gonorrhoea (2.4%), syphilis (0.9%) and HIV (0.5%) continued to decrease in 2007. These infections were most frequently diagnosed in MSM. In 2007, 306 new positive HIV cases were diagnosed in STI centres in the Netherlands. This number amounts to about one third of the total number of 864 positive HIV cases registered nationally. At the end of 2007, a total of 14,019 HIV cases in care were registered in the Netherlands. The proportion of MSM among new HIV cases rose further in 2007. In line with previous years, concurrent STIs were diagnosed very frequently among MSM visiting STI centres (45%) who had known HIV positive status. In this group of men, Lymphogranuloma Venereum (LGV) an aggressive type of chlamydia, has been reported frequently since 2004; this has also been the case for hepatitis C since 2007. In this group of men, strengthened surveillance and innovative interventions are warranted in order to prevent further transmission both among MSM and to other population groups. In some specific migrant groups in the Dutch population -- for example, people from Surinam, the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba -- HIV, chlamydia, gonorrhoea and syphilis are more common than in the autochthonous Dutch population. This indicates the need for targeted intervention by risk profile. The specialised STI centres in the Netherlands offer STI testing and care targeted at high risk groups. In 2007, approximately 78,000 people used this service amounting to a rise of 13% compared to 2006

Impact of socioeconomic deprivation on rate and cause of death in severe mental illness

Background: Socioeconomic status has important associations with disease-specific mortality in the general population. Although individuals with Severe Mental Illnesses (SMI) experience significant premature mortality, the relationship between socioeconomic status and mortality in this group remains under investigated.<p></p> Aims: To assess the impact of socioeconomic status on rate and cause of death in individuals with SMI (schizophrenia and bipolar disorder) relative to the local (Glasgow) and wider (Scottish) populations.<p></p> Methods: Cause and age of death during 2006-2010 inclusive for individuals with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder registered on the Glasgow Psychosis Clinical Information System (PsyCIS) were obtained by linkage to the Scottish General Register Office (GRO). Rate and cause of death by socioeconomic status, measured by Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation (SIMD), were compared to the Glasgow and Scottish populations.<p></p> Results: Death rates were higher in people with SMI across all socioeconomic quintiles compared to the Glasgow and Scottish populations, and persisted when suicide was excluded. Differences were largest in the most deprived quintile (794.6 per 10,000 population vs. 274.7 and 252.4 for Glasgow and Scotland respectively). Cause of death varied by socioeconomic status. For those living in the most deprived quintile, higher drug-related deaths occurred in those with SMI compared to local Glasgow and wider Scottish population rates (12.3% vs. 5.9%, p = <0.001 and 5.1% p = 0.002 respectively). A lower proportion of deaths due to cancer in those with SMI living in the most deprived quintile were also observed, relative to the local Glasgow and wider Scottish populations (12.3% vs. 25.1% p = 0.013 and 26.3% p = <0.001). The proportion of suicides was significantly higher in those with SMI living in the more affluent quintiles relative to Glasgow and Scotland (54.6% vs. 5.8%, p = <0.001 and 5.5%, p = <0.001). Discussion and conclusions: Excess mortality in those with SMI occurred across all socioeconomic quintiles compared to the Glasgow and Scottish populations but was most marked in the most deprived quintiles when suicide was excluded as a cause of death. Further work assessing the impact of socioeconomic status on specific causes of premature mortality in SMI is needed

Association between forgone care and household income among the elderly in five Western European countries – analyses based on survey data from the SHARE-study

Background. Studies on the association between access to health care and household income have rarely included an assessment of 'forgone care', but this indicator could add to our understanding of the inverse care law. We hypothesize that reporting forgone care is more prevalent in low income groups. Methods. The study is based on the 'Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE)', focusing on the non-institutionalized population aged 50 years or older. Data are included from France, Germany, Greece, Italy and Sweden. The dependent variable is assessed by the following question: During the last twelve months, did you forgo any types of care because of the costs you would have to pay, or because this care was not available or not easily accessible? The main independent variable is household income, adjusted for household size and split into quintiles, calculating the quintile limits for each country separately. Information on age, sex, self assessed health and chronic disease is included as well. Logistic regression models were used for the multivariate analyses. Results. The overall level of forgone care differs considerably between the five countries (e.g. about 10 percent in Greece and 6 percent in Sweden). Low income groups report forgone care more often than high income groups. This associ

Risk factors for progression from severe maternal morbidity to death: a national cohort study.

Women continue to die unnecessarily during or after pregnancy in the developed world. The aim of this analysis was to compare women with severe maternal morbidities who survived with those who died, to quantify the risk associated with identified factors to inform policy and practice to improve survival

Migrant health in Italy: a better health status difficult to maintain-country of origin and assimilation effects studied from the Italian risk factor surveillance data

Many studies on migrant health have focused on aspects of morbidity and mortality, but very few approach the relevant issues of migrants' health considering behavioral risk factors. Previous studies have often been limited methodologically because of sample size or lack of information on migrant country of origin. Information about risk factors is fundamental to direct any intervention, particularly with regard to non-communicable diseases that are leading causes of death and disease. Thus, the main focus of our analysis is the influence of country of origin and the assimilation process

Does Selective Migration Explain the Hispanic Paradox?: A Comparative Analysis of Mexicans in the U.S. and Mexico

Latino immigrants, particularly Mexican, have some health advantages over U.S.-born Mexicans and Whites. Because of their lower socioeconomic status, this phenomenon has been called the epidemiologic “Hispanic Paradox.” While cultural theories have dominated explanations for the Paradox, the role of selective migration has been inadequately addressed. This study is among the few to combine Mexican and U.S. data to examine health selectivity in activity limitation, self-rated health, and chronic conditions among Mexican immigrants, ages 18 and over. Drawing on theories of selective migration, this study tested the “healthy migrant” and “salmon-bias” hypotheses by comparing the health of Mexican immigrants in the U.S. to non-migrants in Mexico, and to return migrants in Mexico. Results suggest that there are both healthy migrant and salmon-bias effects in activity limitation, but not other health aspects. In fact, consistent with prior research, immigrants are negatively selected on self-rated health. Future research should consider the complexities of migrants’ health profiles and examine selection mechanisms alongside other factors such as acculturation