The potential for scaling up container-based sanitation in informal settlements in Kenya

Kenya has enshrined the right to sanitation in the 2010 constitution. Achieving this requires scaling up infrastructure and models of delivery beyond sewer networks that have previously been the focus. In Kenya, two enterprises, Sanergy and Sanivation, have been providing new forms of off-grid services with container-based sanitation (CBS). This paper uses a political economy analysis to understand the incentives, institutions and power dynamics that are enabling or constraining the potential for such off-grid sanitation models. The paper outlines six core problems to be addressed in the pursuit of scaling up: fragmented governance; sustainability of CBS enterprise models; service delivery planning in informal settlements; personal power rather than institutions in decision-making; vested local interests; and land tenure and political connection. It discusses how stakeholders might work collaboratively to progressively address or recognise these issues

Lost in transition? Equity in planning and funding of climate adaptive urban sanitation

Urban sanitation systems will be impacted by climate change leading to negative public, environmental and socio-economic outcomes. Therefore, adaptation of urban sanitation against the impacts of climate change will be required. However, globally urban sanitation systems are already stressed by inequities of service provision, aging and poorly managed infrastructure and a persistent funding gap within the sector. This thesis explores equity considerations in planning and funding climate-adaptive urban sanitation. Sanitation equity under climate change means fair and just provision of services to all individuals, irrespective of socioeconomic status, location, or other forms of discrimination, under current and future conditions. The discussion and conclusions of this thesis focus on sanitation systems in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). However, as climate adaptation of urban sanitation is an emerging topic, there are limited well document examples from LMICs. Therefore, the analysis also relies on global examples to provide evidence of the impacts of climate change and the adaptation efforts of urban sanitation systems. I conducted a global systematic literature review to analyse the evidence base for the impacts of climate change on urban sanitation systems and their link to common sanitation failures. Cross-case analysis explored eight investments in climate adaptation of sanitation systems, focusing on funding models and equity considerations in their design and financing. Finally, I used the case of Nairobi, Kenya, to examine equitable sanitation adaptation in a city with fragmented governance. This involved reviewing sanitation and climate adaptation policies, mapping, and quantifying current and future sanitation service configurations. In summary, I found a pervasive lack of engagement with the real systems of sanitation service delivery and their entrenched sanitation inequities across research, funding, and planning for sanitation adaptation – in particular with those that do not rely on piped sewerage. The widespread disconnect between policy rhetoric and implementation at the intersection of sanitation, equity and adaptation to climate change limits the prospect of current adaptation responses to lead to citywide, high-quality, and resilient sanitation service delivery. The results of this research raise concern that current adaptation responses often fail to address entrenched socio-spatial inequities, risking further exacerbation of these disparities under climate change. If ‘resilience’ and ‘equity’ are merely used as labels without prioritizing vulnerable populations, urban sanitation inequity will persist and likely worsen. I conclude by emphasising that equity is an inherent part of climate-resilient sanitation systems and funding approaches for adaptation need to reflect this fundamental requirement in order to enable system wide transformative adaptation