Strategies of the Poorest in Local Water Conflict and Cooperation - Evidence from Vietnam, Bolivia and Zambia

Media stories often speak of a future dominated by large-scale water wars. Rather less attention has been paid to the way water conflicts already play out at local levels and form part of people’s everyday lives. Based on case study studies from Vietnam, Bolivia and Zambia, this paper examines the strategies of poor households in local water conflicts. It is shown how such households may not only engage actively in collaborative water management but may also apply risk aversion strategies when faced with powerful adversaries in conflict situations. It is further shown how dependency relations between poor and wealthy households can reduce the scope of action for the poor in water conflicts. As a result, poor households can be forced to abstain from defending their water resources in order to maintain socio-economic and political ties with the very same households that oppose them in water conflicts. The paper concludes by briefly discussing how the poorest can be supported in local water conflicts. This includes ensuring that alternative spaces for expressing grievances exist and are accessible; facilitating that water sharing agreements and rights are clearly stipulated and monitored; and working beyond water governance to reduce the socio-economic dependency-relations of poor household

Vegetable production in the Red River Delta of Vietnam. I. Opportunities and constraints

An overview is given of the natural, socio-economic, agronomical and marketing conditions for vegetable production in the Red River Delta (RRD) of Vietnam. The seasonal variation in temperature in the RRD is the main determinant for the production season of vegetables. Heavy rainfall in the hot season increases production risks, as it may physically damage crops. Frequent rainfall in this period may enhance disease incidence. Landholdings are small and individual plots are the smallest of Indochina. Vegetables typically are produced in flooded rice based systems. Such systems are characterized by poor soil structure for vegetable production and high labour demand for the construction of raised beds. Highly perishable crops can only be grown close to the markets in the peri-urban areas. Less perishable crops can be produced further away from the city markets. Generally, large quantities of pesticides are used and there is increasing public concern about pesticide residues on products. The small landholdings, small plots and consequently the small amounts of product, limit effective marketing and make the producers dependent on collectors. Given the trends in population dynamics and human diets, urban vegetable demand in the RRD, however, has ample opportunities to grow. Effects have been analysed and categorised in opportunities and constraints for adopting improvements. A potential pathway to sustainable development is the development of permanent vegetable production systems, with producers co-operating in producers organizations, enabling them to work on a larger scale, produce larger volumes, introduce harvest date planning and quality control and aim for the integration of production with marketing in a vegetable value chain. By simultaneously adopting Good Agricultural Practices, consumers’ food safety concerns can be addressed. The expected increase in vegetable demand is likely to open new opportunities for the RRD vegetable producer

Vegetable production in the Red River Delta of Vietnam. II. Profability, labour requirement and pesticide use

Vegetable production plays an important role in the rural economy of the Red River Delta (RRD), Vietnam. Data were collected on present vegetable production in the RRD, with the aim to characterise the vegetable production in terms of profitability, labour requirement and pesticide use and to evaluate vegetable production for its potential to increase rural household income. Three hundred and sixty data sets consisting of qualitative (planting and harvesting dates) and quantitative (yield, product price, material and labour input) data were collected from 42 different vegetable crops presently produced commercially in the RRD. Variables were converted into value (thousand Vietnamese Dong, kVND) or days per hectare per growing day in the field (Gday), enabling analysis of data independent of crop growth duration. The income derived from vegetable production ranged from 100 to 400 kVND/ha/Gday. Labour input varied from 3 to 9 days/ha/Gday. Profit increased with an increase in the labour input per growing day. Short growth duration crops required a higher labour input per growing day. The average cost of pesticide use was 25.7 kVND/ha/Gday. Planting in the summer season may result in a shorter growing period as compared to planting in the winter season. The range of variation in the data reflects the diversity in crops and cropping conditions in the RRD. The results indicate that permanent vegetable production has the potential to substantially contribute to an increase in rural household income in the RRD, while increased labour demand can likely be fulfilled by the family household. Thereby, developing permanent vegetable production systems may be a pathway for development of the vegetable production sector in the RR

Pesticide use in Vietnamese vegetable production : a 10-year study

Vietnam has had varying success over the past decade with its pesticides policy. Some of the most toxic pesticides have been banned from the market. But while many countries have successfully decreased agricultural pesticide use per hectare, this has not (yet) happened in Vietnam. Due to insufficient pesticide management capacity of the Vietnamese government, pesticide types and quantities registered and distributed on the market have substantially increased in Vietnam over the last 10 years. A 10-year monitoring programme at farm level showed that pesticide use follows the increasing pesticide availability on the market, and many toxic and illegal pesticides are still being used. In an agricultural country dominated by millions of small-scale farmers and with limited state capacity for control at farm level, reduction of the use of the most toxic pesticides can best be achieved by more effective pesticide market control through stricter and more effective state regulations and implementation, aimed at eliminating illegal, low quality and counterfeit pesticides from the market. But even then, better state and private extension services, and greater state capacity for control and enforcement remain essential in enabling farmers to make better decisions about pesticide use.</p

Strategies of the poorest in local water conflict and cooperation - evidence from Vietnam, Bolivia and Zambia

Media stories often speak of a future dominated by large-scale water wars. Rather less attention has been paid to the way water conflicts play out at local levels and form part of people's everyday lives. Based on case study studies from Vietnam, Bolivia and Zambia, this paper examines the strategies of poor households in local water conflicts. It is shown how such households may not only engage actively in collaborative water management but may also apply risk aversion strategies when faced with powerful adversaries in conflict situations. It is further shown how dependency relations between poor and wealthy households can reduce the scope of action for the poor in water conflicts. As a result, poor households can be forced to abstain from defending their water resources in order to maintain socio-economic and political ties with the very same households that oppose them in water conflicts. The paper concludes by briefly discussing how the poorest can be supported in local water conflicts. This includes ensuring that alternative spaces for expressing grievances exist and are accessible; facilitating that water sharing agreements and rights are clearly stipulated and monitored; and working beyond water governance to reduce the socio-economic dependency-relations of poor households