Polymorphic phase transformations of 3-chloro-trans-cinnamic acid and its solid solution with 3-bromo-trans-cinnamic acid

We have investigated the polymorphic phase transformations above ambient temperature for 3-chloro-trans-cinnamic acid (3-ClCA, C9H7ClO2) and a solid solution of 3-ClCA and 3-bromo-trans-cinnamic acid (3-BrCA, C9H7BrO2). At 413 K, the γ polymorph of 3-ClCA transforms to the β polymorph. Inter­estingly, the structure of the β polymorph of 3-ClCA obtained in this transformation is different from the structure of the β polymorph of 3-BrCA obtained in the corresponding polymorphic transformation from the γ polymorph of 3-BrCA, even though the γ polymorphs of 3-ClCA and 3-BrCA are isostructural. We also report a high-temperature phase transformation from a γ-type structure to a β-type structure for a solid solution of 3-ClCA and 3-BrCA (with a molar ratio close to 1:1). The γ polymorph of the solid solution is isostructural with the γ polymorphs of pure 3-ClCA and pure 3-BrCA, while the β-type structure produced in the phase transformation is structurally similar to the β polymorph of pure 3-BrCA

"Classic NMR": an in-situ NMR strategy for mapping the time-evolution of crystallization processes by combined liquid-state and solid-state measurements

A new in-situ NMR strategy (termed CLASSIC NMR) for mapping the evolution of crystallization processes is reported, involving simultaneous measurement of both liquid-state and solid-state NMR spectra as a function of time. This combined strategy allows complementary information to be obtained on the evolution of both the solid and liquid phases during the crystallization process. In particular, as crystallization proceeds (monitored by solid-state NMR), the solution state becomes more dilute, leading to changes in solution-state speciation and the modes of molecular aggregation in solution, which are monitored by liquid-state NMR. The CLASSIC NMR experiment is applied here to yield new insights into the crystallization of m-aminobenzoic acid

Establishing the transitory existence of amorphous phases in crystallization pathways by the CLASSIC NMR technique

With the growing realization that crystallization processes may evolve through a sequence of different solid forms, including amorphous precursor phases, the development of suitable in situ experimental probes is essential for comprehensively mapping the time‐evolution of such processes. Here we demonstrate that the CLASSIC NMR (Combined Liquid‐ And Solid‐State In situ Crystallization NMR) strategy is a powerful technique for revealing the transitory existence of amorphous phases during crystallization processes, applying this technique to study crystallization of DL menthol and L menthol from their molten liquid phases. The CLASSIC NMR results provide direct insights into the conditions (including the specific time period) under which the molten liquid phase, transitory amorphous phases and final crystalline phases exist during these crystallization processes

Unraveling the Complex Solid-State Phase Transition Behavior of 1-Iodoadamantane, a Material for Which Ostensibly Identical Crystals Undergo Different Transformation Pathways

Phase transitions in crystalline molecular solids have important implications in the fundamental understanding of materials properties and in the development of materials applications. Herein, we report the solid-state phase transition behavior of 1-iodoadamantane (1-IA) investigated using a multi-technique strategy [synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), single-crystal XRD, solid-state NMR, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)], which reveals complex phase transition behavior on cooling from ambient temperature to ca. 123 K and on subsequent heating to the melting temperature (348 K). Starting from the known phase of 1-IA at ambient temperature (phase A), three low-temperature phases are identified (phases B, C, and D); the crystal structures of phases B and C are reported, together with a re-determination of the structure of phase A. Remarkably, single-crystal XRD shows that some individual crystals of phase A transform to phase B, while other crystals of phase A transform instead to phase C. Results (from powder XRD and DSC) on cooling a powder sample of phase A are fully consistent with this behavior while also revealing an additional transformation pathway from phase A to phase D. Thus, on cooling, a powder sample of phase A transforms partially to phase C (at 229 K), partially to phase D (at 226 K) and partially to phase B (at 211 K). During the cooling process, each of the phases B, C, and D is formed directly from phase A, and no transformations are observed between phases B, C, and D. On heating the resulting triphasic powder sample of phases B, C, and D from 123 K, phase B transforms to phase D (at 211 K), followed by the transformation of phase D to phase C (at 255 K), and finally, phase C transforms to phase A (at 284 K). From these observations, it is apparent that different crystals of phase A, which are ostensibly identical at the level of information revealed by XRD, must actually differ in other aspects that significantly influence their low-temperature phase transition pathways. This unusual behavior will stimulate future studies to gain deeper insights into the specific properties that control the phase transition pathways in individual crystals of this material

A strategy for probing the evolution of crystallization processes by low-temperature solid-state NMR and dynamic nuclear polarization

Crystallization plays an important role in many areas, and to derive a fundamental understanding of crystallization processes, it is essential to understand the sequence of solid phases produced as a function of time. Here, we introduce a new NMR strategy for studying the time evolution of crystallization processes, in which the crystallizing system is quenched rapidly to low temperature at specific time points during crystallization. The crystallized phase present within the resultant “frozen solution” may be investigated in detail using a range of sophisticated NMR techniques. The low temperatures involved allow dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) to be exploited to enhance the signal intensity in the solid-state NMR measurements, which is advantageous for detection and structural characterization of transient forms that are present only in small quantities. This work opens up the prospect of studying the very early stages of crystallization, at which the amount of solid phase present is intrinsically low

Rationalization of the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of aluminium phosphates synthesized from different precursors

The aim of this paper is to clarify the assignments of X-ray photoelectron spectra of aluminium phosphate materials prepared from the reaction of phosphoric acid with three different aluminium precursors [Al(OH)3, Al(NO3)3 and AlCl3] at different annealing temperatures. The materials prepared have been studied by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), infrared spectroscopy and high-resolution solid-state 31P NMR spectroscopy. A progressive polymerization from orthophosphate to metaphosphates is observed by XRD, ATR-FTIR and solid state 31P NMR, and on this basis the oxygen states observed in the XP spectra at 532.3 eV and 533.7 eV are assigned to P–O–Al and P–O–P environments, respectively. The presence of cyclic polyphosphates at the surface of the samples is also evident

Polymorphism of L-tryptophan

A new polymorph of L‐tryptophan has been prepared by crystallization from the gas phase, with structure determination carried out directly from powder XRD data augmented by periodic DFT‐D calculations. The new polymorph (denoted β) and the previously reported polymorph (denoted α) are both based on alternating hydrophilic and hydrophobic layers, but with substantially different hydrogen‐bonding arrangements. The β polymorph exhibits the energetically favourable L2‐L2 hydrogen‐bonding arrangement, which is unprecedented for amino acids with aromatic side‐chains; the specific molecular conformations adopted in the β polymorph facilitate this hydrogen‐bonding scheme while avoiding steric conflict of the side‐chains

Solid-state structural properties of alloxazine determined from powder XRD data in conjunction with DFT-D calculations and solid-state NMR spectroscopy : unraveling the tautomeric identity and pathways for tautomeric interconversion

We report the solid-state structural properties of alloxazine, a tricyclic ring system found in many biologically important molecules, with structure determination carried out directly from powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) data. As the crystal structures containing the alloxazine and isoalloxazine tautomers both give a high-quality fit to the powder XRD data in Rietveld refinement, other techniques are required to establish the tautomeric form in the solid state. In particular, high-resolution solid-state 15N NMR data support the presence of the alloxazine tautomer, based on comparison between isotropic chemical shifts in the experimental 15N NMR spectrum and the corresponding values calculated for the crystal structures containing the alloxazine and isoalloxazine tautomers. Furthermore, periodic DFT-D calculations at the PBE0-MBD level indicate that the crystal structure containing the alloxazine tautomer has significantly lower energy. We also report computational investigations of the interconversion between the tautomeric forms in the crystal structure via proton transfer along two intermolecular N–H···N hydrogen bonds; DFT-D calculations at the PBE0-MBD level indicate that the tautomeric interconversion is associated with a lower energy transition state for a mechanism involving concerted (rather than sequential) proton transfer along the two hydrogen bonds. However, based on the relative energies of the crystal structures containing the alloxazine and isoalloxazine tautomers, it is estimated that under conditions of thermal equilibrium at ambient temperature, more than 99.9% of the molecules in the crystal structure will exist as the alloxazine tautomer

Exploiting in-situ NMR to monitor the formation of a metal-organic framework

The formation processes of metal–organic frameworks are becoming more widely researched using in situ techniques, although there remains a scarcity of NMR studies in this field. In this work, the synthesis of framework MFM-500(Ni) has been investigated using an in situ NMR strategy that provides information on the time-evolution of the reaction and crystallization process. In our in situ NMR study of MFM-500(Ni) formation, liquid-phase 1H NMR data recorded as a function of time at fixed temperatures (between 60 and 100 °C) afford qualitative information on the solution-phase processes and quantitative information on the kinetics of crystallization, allowing the activation energies for nucleation (61.4 ± 9.7 kJ mol−1) and growth (72.9 ± 8.6 kJ mol−1) to be determined. Ex situ small-angle X-ray scattering studies (at 80 °C) provide complementary nanoscale information on the rapid self-assembly prior to MOF crystallization and in situ powder X-ray diffraction confirms that the only crystalline phase present during the reaction (at 90 °C) is phase-pure MFM-500(Ni). This work demonstrates that in situ NMR experiments can shed new light on MOF synthesis, opening up the technique to provide better understanding of how MOFs are formed

Structure determination of biogenic crystals directly from 3D electron diffraction data

Highly reflective assemblies of purine, pteridine, and flavin crystals are used in the coloration and visual systems of many different animals. However, structure determination of biogenic crystals by single-crystal XRD is challenging due to the submicrometer size and beam sensitivity of the crystals, and powder XRD is inhibited due to the small volumes of powders, crystalline impurity phases, and significant preferred orientation. Consequently, the crystal structures of many biogenic materials remain unknown. Herein, we demonstrate that the 3D electron diffraction (3D ED) technique provides a powerful alternative approach, reporting the successful structure determination of biogenic guanine crystals (from spider integument, fish scales, and scallop eyes) from 3D ED data confirmed by analysis of powder XRD data. The results show that all biogenic guanine crystals studied are the previously known β-polymorph. This study highlights the considerable potential of 3D ED for elucidating the structures of biogenic molecular crystals in the nanometer-to-micrometer size range. This opens up an important opportunity in the development of organic biomineralization, for which structural knowledge is critical for understanding the optical functions of biogenic materials and their possible applications as sustainable, biocompatible optical materials