Evaluation of census techniques to estimate the density of slender Loris (Loris lydekkerianus) in Southern India

Reliable estimates of species density are fundamental to planning conservation strategies for any species; further, it is equally crucial to identify the most appropriate technique to estimate animal density. Nocturnal, small-sized animal species are notoriously difficult to census accurately and this issue critically affects their conservation status. We carried out a field study in southern India to estimate the density of slender loris, a small-sized nocturnal primate using line and strip transects. Actual counts of study individuals yielded a density estimate of 1.61 ha–1; density estimate from line transects was 1.08 ha–1; and density estimates varied from 1.06 ha–1 to 0.59 ha–1 in different fixed-width strip transects. We conclude that line and strip transects may typically underestimate densities of cryptic, nocturnal primates

Population Recovery of Nicobar Long-Tailed Macaque Macaca fascicularis umbrosus following a Tsunami in the Nicobar Islands, India

Natural disasters pose a threat to isolated populations of species with restricted distributions, especially those inhabiting islands. The Nicobar long tailed macaque.Macaca fascicularis umbrosus, is one such species found in the three southernmost islands (viz. Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar and Katchal) of the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago, India. These islands were hit by a massive tsunami (Indian Ocean tsunami, 26 December 2004) after a 9.2 magnitude earthquake. Earlier studies [Umapathy et al. 2003; Sivakumar, 2004] reported a sharp decline in the population of M. f. umbrosus after thetsunami. We studied the distribution and population status of M. f. umbrosus on thethree Nicobar Islands and compared our results with those of the previous studies. We carried out trail surveys on existing paths and trails on three islands to get encounter rate as measure of abundance. We also checked the degree of inundation due to tsunami by using Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) on landsat imageries of the study area before and after tsunami. Theencounter rate of groups per kilometre of M. f. umbrosus in Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar and Katchal was 0.30, 0.35 and 0.48 respectively with the mean group size of 39 in Great Nicobar and 43 in Katchal following the tsunami. This was higher than that reported in the two earlier studies conducted before and after the tsunami. Post tsunami, there was a significant change in the proportion of adult males, adult females and immatures, but mean group size did not differ as compared to pre tsunami. The results show that population has recovered from a drastic decline caused by tsunami, but it cannot be ascertained whether it has reached stability because of the altered group structure. This study demonstrates the effect of natural disasters on island occurring species

Distribution and relative abundance of giant squirrels and flying squirrels in Karnataka, India

We assessed the distribution and relative abundance of giant squirrels and flying squirrels in the state of Karnataka, India. Two species of giant squirrels, the Indian giant squirrel and the grizzled giant squirrel, and two species of flying squirrel, the large brown flying squirrel and the small Travancore flying squirrel, were found to occur in Karnataka. Indian giant squirrels and large brown flying squirrels were more widely distributed than the other two species. The distributional range included the forests of the Western and Eastern Ghats. However, their distribution was confined only to forests with tall trees. Indian giant squirrels and large brown flying squirrels occur in both deciduous and evergreen forests. Small Travancore flying squirrels occupied high-rainfall evergreen forests on western slopes in the Western Ghats, and the grizzled giant squirrels occupy riverine forests. This report of the small Travancore flying squirrel is the first of this species from Karnataka, and this population is the most northern population of its distributional range. Hunting was found to be a major threat, and influenced the abundance of all species except the grizzled giant squirrel. Hunting was primarily for domestic consumption

Decline of the Endangered lion-tailed macaque Macaca silenus in the Western Ghats, India

The Endangered lion-tailed macaque Macaca silenus is endemic to rainforest patches of the Western Ghats mountains in south-western India. Most populations of this primate are severely fragmented and declining and the species is locally extinct in some areas. This study evaluates the status of this macaque in the Talakaveri, Pushpagiri and Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuaries and adjacent areas in the state of Karnataka. We sighted four, two and three groups, consisting of five, nine and 14 individuals, in these three sanctuaries, respectively. The recently discovered population in the Sirsi-Honnavara area of Karnataka state is possibly the only viable population, with .750 individuals, but is confined to unprotected reserve forests with extensive human habitation, agricultural land and livestock reserves. We make recommendations for the long-term conservation of the species, and for the Sirsi-Honnavara population in particular

Do males bond? A study of male-male relationships in Nicobar long-tailed macaques Macaca fascicularis umbrosus

In primates, males compete for a mate, which is a non-sharable resource. This makes the conditions less conducive for males to have stable relationships. One such special kind of relationship is a bond where the interactions are reciprocated, equitable and differentiated. Bonds in macaque societies are based on the degree of within-group contest competition for mates which is dependent on the synchronization of female fertile phase and reliability of fertility signals. Species of the Fascicularis group, including Nicobar subspecies, show intermediate reliability in the signals with mild peaks, and studies have shown reciprocity but no differentiation. We conducted a study on a group of wild Nicobar long-tailed macaques Macaca fascicularis umbrosus to understand the existing patterns of male-male relationships. We examined whether there is reciprocity in affiliation among the individuals and whether the rate of affiliation is balanced. We also measured the dominance linearity and steepness in the group to understand the monopolizability of females. We used social network analysis to understand whether the relations are differentiated based on hierarchical position and whether the high-ranking individuals are the most central individuals in the distribution of grooming in the group. We found that there is reciprocity among the males although that is not equitable. There was no rank-related differentiation of affiliation among the males of the group. Instead, the identities of individuals influenced affiliation patterns. Our results correspond to the existent strong relationships but lack of social bond otherwise found in the Fascicularis group of macaques

Ecological Determinants of Malabar Slender Loris (Loris lydekkerianus malabaricus, Cabrera 1908) Occupancy and Abundance in Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats, India

Precise knowledge of a species' habitat requirements is essential for its conservation. Very little information exists on the habitat requirements of the Malabar slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus malabaricus), a nocturnal primate, making it difficult to formulate conservation action plans. The goal of this study was to evaluate the ecological determinants of t he Malabar slender loris at the Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, India. We conducted surveys in a 1-km(2) area in the southwest end of the sanctuary. We overlaid the study site with 1-ha grids and selected 83 grids for sampling. We surveyed each grid on five consecutive nights for the presence and abundance of lorises. We measured tree species richness, basal area, mean tree height, percentage shrub cover, percentage climber cover, climber species richness, percentage canopy cover, tree felling and branch lopping, paths, and the time taken to walk the trail. We built 19 models for occupancy and 17 models for abundance using PRESENCE 12.9. We detected 69 lorises in total in a 57.05-km walk with an encounter rate of 1.33 +/- 0.21 SE individuals/km. The detection probability was 0.25 +/- 0.04 SE for occupancy, and 0.13 +/- 0.04 SE for abundance. The naive occupancy estimate for loris was 0.48, but the occupancy estimate of the top model with covariates was 0.67 +/- 0.12 SE. The estimate of abundance (lambda) was 2.40 +/- 1.04 SE per grid cell. Basal area, species richness of the trees, and tree felling and branch lopping were the major positive determinants of loris occupancy and abundance. In contrast, the percentage climber cover negatively influenced occupancy and abundance. This suggests that climbers do not provide a complete platform for the lorises to move, while tree species richness and basal area reflect a greater number of trees that provide more connectivity than climbers. Detailed investigations using the methods we employed can be undertaken throughout the range of this species to determine occupancy and formulate conservation and management plans

Ranging Behavior and Resource Use by Lion-Tailed Macaques (Macaca silenus) in Selectively Logged Forests

Physical and ecological factors such as season, rainfall, food availability, number of plant species eaten, intergroup encounters, and degree of terrestriality influence the daily path length (DPL) and home range use of animals. We examined whether these factors influenced DPL and home range use in a group of endemic lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) in the selectively logged forests of Sirsi-Honnavara in the central Western Ghats Mountains of south India. We predicted that monthly rainfall, fruit tree density, number of plant species eaten, intergroup encounters, and terrestriality would correlate with DPL, and fruit tree density, overall tree density, and richness of fruiting tree species would correlate with home range use. We collected data on feeding ecology from scan sampling, and DPL and home range use by recording the geo-coordinates of the focal group with a handheld GPS during daily follows. We obtained 1230 h of observations over 24 mo between 2008 and 2011. We collected data on the density of food species and of all trees using the point-centered quarter method in 1-ha grid cells overlaid on the home range of the study group. Results showed that the mean monthly DPL correlated positively with the number of trees fruiting in a month and negatively with rainfall. Overall tree density and fruit tree density correlated positively with habitat use. These findings support the hypothesis that primary food resources are a major determinant of primate ranging patterns. Our results are also important for lion-tailed macaque conservation, in light of the pressure the habitat has been facing. We propose conservation action to include the important food species of lion-tailed macaques for habitat restoration by the local forest department

Small carnivores of Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve, Karnataka, India

During the present study in Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve (BRT), nine species of small carnivores viz., Jungle Cat Felis chaus, Rusty-spotted Cat Prionalilurus rubiginosus, Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis, Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica, Asian Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Striped-necked Mongoose Herpestes vitticollis, Ruddy Mongoose Herpestes smithii, Common Mongoose Herpestes edwardsii and Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata, were recorded using camera-trapping technique, transect walks, and night surveys. Vegetation type strongly influences the presence and abundance of each species. The most sightings of small carnivores occurred in dry deciduous forests. Among all the species, the Asian Palm Civet was the most abundant and was followed by the small Indian Civet. Compared to many other forests or regions in India, the sight records of the Rusty-spotted Cat were relatively higher in BRT. Although we were unable to use statistical methods to search for higher levels of interdependencies between forest types and small carnivore abundance, our study sheds light on patterns of small carnivore distribution in this unique habitat which bridges the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.</span

Does rank rule? Rank-related grooming patterns in Nicobar long-tailed macaques Macaca fascicularis umbrosus

Primates maintain social bonds with specific individuals in the group by directing grooming toward them. Social grooming is often targeted toward individuals with whom the most benefits can be exchanged, which are usually the high-ranking individuals. We used the Seyfarth model to investigate whether dominance rank alters the distribution of grooming in a group of Macaca fascicularis umbrosus at Great Nicobar Island. We investigated whether dominance rank predicted grooming rate in both males and females. We used social network analysis to examine whether high-ranking animals maintain a central position in the grooming network. We also investigated whether adult individuals exchange grooming for social tolerance, as indicated by physical proximity. We found that more social grooming was directed toward high-ranking females, but not high-ranking males. Social network analysis suggested that high-ranking animals are not central individuals in the distribution of grooming; rather, middle-ranking animals were major contributors to the distribution of grooming. There was no relation between the grooming rate and proximity in both males and females. Overall, our findings suggest that females prefer to direct grooming toward high-ranking partners, although the dominance hierarchy is less steep than expected for Macaca fascicularis. Thus rank-related grooming patterns may be a relatively conserved trait in this isolated island population

Interactions of lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) with non-primates in the Western Ghats, India

Primates and non-primates inhabiting tropical forests may interact with each other since they coexist in the same communities. Primates usually interact with their prey, predators, competitors and neutral species. Using ‘all occurrence’ sampling, we have studied inter-specific interactions of lion-tailed macaques with non-primate species found in their habitat. We ob-served that the percentage of total time spent on in-teractions with non-primates was less than 1. Also, the percentage of total time spent in interacting with competitors, predators and neutral species was less than 0.5. The lack of predation pressure and lack of opportunities for mixed-species associations for in-creasing foraging efficiency appear to be the major reasons for the absence of interactions with non-primates. By comparing with studies from other pri-mate habitat regions, we observed that primates in South Asia interact much lesser with non-primates than those in South America and Africa. A previous study showed that the interactions of lion-tailed ma-caques even with other primate species in the Western Ghats are less than expected by chance