The Evolution of Public Health Education and Training in the United Kingdom

The United Kingdom has a long and evolving history of public health education. From the initiation of formal standardised training for Medical Officers for Health in the early 1900s, to the current national public health training programme, public health education has adapted to the changing contexts of public health practice. Whilst the profession was originally only a medical specialty, subsequent re­­cognition of the skills and contribution of the wider public health workforce has led to changes in professional specialist training for public health, which is now open to non-medical applicants. This well-established professional training scheme allows the formal accreditation of competence in a broad range of public health skills. The academic component of public health training is provided by a rapidly growing number of postgraduate courses. Once confined to the UK’s first school of public health, the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and a handful of British Universities, the current 60 or so courses across the country are found in diverse university settings. Quality and standards in higher education are monitored by the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education but there are no other professional accreditation schemes for postgraduate courses in public health nationally. Public health education and training continues to face challenges in the UK, notably the current government plans for major restructuring of the National Health Service (NHS) which threatens the loss of traditional NHS training placements and has created uncertainty around how professional training might be structured in the future. Whilst the long established tradition of public health education and more recent adoption of competency-based approaches to training gives some flexibility to meet these challenges, insight and innovative responses are required to ensure that public health education and training are not destabilised by these challenges. Revisions of the curricula of postgraduate courses and the competencies required for professional accreditation along with provision of experience in the new locations where public health is to be practiced in the future will be key to ensuring that public health professionals are ready to tackle the key issues that confront them

A DNA toolbox for non-invasive genetic studies of sambar deer (Rusa unicolor)

Invasive sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) are having significant detrimental impacts on natural environments in south-eastern Australia. Little, however, is known about their ecology, limiting evidence-based management strategies directed at reducing deer impacts. Genetic data, generated from DNA isolated from deer scats, can be used to fill ecological knowledge gaps. This study outlines a non-invasive genetic sampling strategy by which good-quality DNA from a single deer scat can be used to determine (1) species of origin, (2) sex and (3) a unique DNA profile. DNA from deer tissue and sambar deer scat samples were used to develop and optimise molecular methods to collect reliable genetic information. A DNA toolbox is presented that describes how to find, collect and store scat samples, isolate DNA and use molecular markers to generate informative genetic data. Generating genetic data using this approach will support studies aimed at acquiring ecological knowledge about sambar deer. Such knowledge will be critical for developing evidence-based recommendations to improve on-ground management decisions for sambar deer

Preparedness of Hospitals in the Republic of Ireland for an Influenza Pandemic, an Infection Control Perspective

BACKGROUND: When an influenza pandemic occurs most of the population is susceptible and attack rates can range as high as 40–50 %. The most important failure in pandemic planning is the lack of standards or guidelines regarding what it means to be ‘prepared’. The aim of this study was to assess the preparedness of acute hospitals in the Republic of Ireland for an influenza pandemic from an infection control perspective. METHODS: This was a cross sectional study involving a questionnaire completed by infection control nurses, time period from June – July 2013, (3 weeks) from acute public and private hospitals in the Republic of Ireland. A total of 46 out of 56 hospitals responded to the questionnaire. RESULTS: From a sample of 46 Irish hospitals, it was found that Irish hospitals are not fully prepared for an influenza pandemic despite the 2009 Influenza A (H1N1) pandemic. In 2013, thirty five per cent of Irish hospitals have participated in an emergency plan or infectious disease exercise and have plans or been involved in local planning efforts to care for patients at non-health care facilities. Sixty per cent of Irish hospitals did not compile or did not know if the hospital had compiled a “lessons learned” from any exercise that were then used to revise emergency response plans. Fifty two per cent of hospitals have sufficient airborne isolation capacity to address routine needs and have an interim emergency plan to address needs during an outbreak. Fifty one percent of hospitals have taken specific measures to stockpile or have reserve medical supplies e.g. masks, ventilators and linen. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study carried out in the Republic of Ireland investigating the current preparedness for an influenza pandemic from an infection control perspective. Deficits exist in the provision of emergency planning committees, testing of emergency plans, airborne isolation facilities, stockpiling of personal protective equipment (PPE) and medical supplies and organisational schemes/incentives for healthcare workers to continue to work in a pandemic. While Irish standards are comparable to findings from international studies, the health care service needs to continue to enhance preparedness for an influenza pandemic and implement standard preparedness guidance for all Irish hospital

Delineating genetic management units of sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) in south-eastern Australia, using opportunistic tissue sampling and targeted scat collection

Context: Invasive species are major drivers of biodiversity loss, requiring management to reduce their ecological impacts. Population genetics can be applied to delineate management units, providing information that can help plan and improve control strategies. Aim: The present study aims to use a genetic approach to test the existence of three previously proposed sambar deer populations in south-eastern Australia. In doing so, the study aims to delineate management units of sambar deer in south-eastern Australia. Methods: Sambar deer DNA was sourced opportunistically from tissue samples and targeted scat collection. Samples were collected from three areas in Victoria, south-eastern Australia: Mt Cole (MC), French Island (FI) and eastern Victoria (EV). Contemporary population structure was assessed using a suite of 11 polymorphic microsatellite markers. The number of maternal sambar deer lineages in south-eastern Australia was investigated through sequencing of the mitochondrial (mt)DNA control region. Key results: Three distinct genetic clusters were identified. Differentiation among inferred clusters was found to be high, with FST ranging from 0.24 between EV and FI clusters and 0.48 between MC and FI clusters. Two mtDNA haplotypes were identified; R.u1 was found throughout EV and FI, and R.u2 was unique to MC. DNA isolated from scats provided reliable data and proved critical for sampling areas where hunting and culling of deer are not generally undertaken. Conclusions: Three genetically distinct sambar deer management units in south-eastern Australia are defined-MC, FI and EV. Sambar deer control strategies should be applied to each management unit independently. This may be difficult or infeasible for the EV management unit, which is large and geographically complex. Further research may help identify additional fine-scale genetic structure in EV, allowing smaller, more practicable management units to be identified. Implications: Genetic data can be used to identify management units for invasive species, which will be critical for the development of future management strategies and improving control operations. The approach outlined here could also be applied to improve the management of other introduced deer species in south-eastern Australia. © 2022 CSIRO Open Access

Investigating novel sensing techniques for monitoring trade effluent (TE)

Industrial manufacturing is reliant on access to water resources for fabrication, synthesis, processing, cleaning and dilution. This usage of water leads to the accumulation of organic and inorganic compounds in addition to solid particulates producing trade effluent (TE) waste. Industry disposes of TE in one of the following ways; (i) containment and transportation to a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), (ii) released to a sewer network for downstream treatment at a WWTP, or (iii) released to natural waters with varying levels of treatment. Of these TE disposal methods, (i) and (ii) are most commonly used to prevent the contamination of natural waters, in line with environmental regulatory requirements. The processes carried out by different industries are highly variable, which leads to similarly variable TE profiles. This research project on investigating novel sensing techniques for monitoring trade effluent (TE) was designed to explore innovative off-the-shelf technologies for monitoring TE from three industrial sectors. Monitoring of TE is currently dependent on offline chemical analysis that is both costly and time consuming. The offline nature of TE monitoring prevents the application of preventative TE management strategies which could improve the outcomes for Irish Water and its customers. Novel technologies provide potential for reducing the monitoring burdens of TE, providing better data for accurate TE management and the potential for more accurate billing of TE are the primary benefits of the project. The sectors selected for this project are; a) Biopharmachem – companies involved in the manufacture of biological pharmaceutical products. b) Food and beverage – companies involved in the manufacture of food and beverage products. c) Waste management – companies involved in the reception, processing, treatment and disposal of wastes

Landings, vol. 31, no. 2

Landings content emphasizes science, history, resource sustainability, economic development, and human interest stories related to Maine\u27s lobster industry. The newsletter emphasizes lobstering as a traditional, majority-European American lifeway with an economic and social heritage unique to the coast of Maine. The publication focuses how ongoing research to engage in sustainable, non-harmful, and non-wasteful commercial fishing practices benefit both the fishery and Maine\u27s coastal legacy. For more information, please visit the Maine Lobstermen’s Community Alliance (MLCA) website

Validating the use of non-invasively sourced DNA for population genetic studies using pedigree data

Non-invasive genetic sampling has provided valuable ecological data for many species - data which may have been unobtainable using invasive sampling methods. However, DNA obtained non-invasively may be prone to increased levels of amplification failure and genotyping error. Utilizing genotype data from 32 pedigreed koalas, this study aimed to validate the reliability of final consensus genotypes obtained using DNA isolated from koala scats. Pedigree analysis, duplicate genotyping, analysis of mismatched loci and tests for null alleles were used to look for evidence of errors. All genetically confirmed parent-offspring relationships were found to follow Mendelian rules of inheritance. Duplicate genotypes matched in all cases and there was no evidence of null alleles. Related individuals always had different 12-marker genotypes having a minimum of three unique loci (in one full sibling pair), a mode of seven unique loci and a maximum of 11 unique loci. This study demonstrates the capacity of DNA recovered from koala scats to provide reliable genotypes that can unequivocally discriminate individuals and infer parentage, provided data are missing from no more than two loci. Validating data obtained using non-invasive sampling is an important step, allowing potential problems to be identified at an early stage. © Author(s) 2017. CC Attribution 3.0 License

Using non-invasive sampling methods to determine the prevalence and distribution of Chlamydia pecorum and koala retrovirus in a remnant koala population with conservation importance

Context Pathogenic infections are an important consideration for the conservation of native species, but obtaining such data from wild populations can be expensive and difficult. Two pathogens have been implicated in the decline of some koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations: Urogenital infection with Chlamydia pecorum and koala retrovirus subgroup A (KoRV-A). Pathogen data for a wild koala population of conservation importance in South Gippsland, Victoria are essentially absent. Aims This study uses non-invasive sampling of koala scats to provide prevalence and genotype data for C. pecorum and KoRV-A in the South Gippsland koala population, and compares pathogen prevalence between wild koalas and koalas in rescue shelters. Methods C. pecorum and KoRV-A provirus were detected by PCR of DNA isolated from scats collected in the field. Pathogen genetic variation was investigated using DNA sequencing of the C. pecorum ompA and KoRV-A env genes. Key results C. pecorum and KoRV-A were detected in 61% and 27% of wild South Gippsland individuals tested, respectively. KoRV-A infection tended to be higher in shelter koalas compared with wild koalas. In contrast with other Victorian koala populations sampled, greater pathogen diversity was present in South Gippsland. Conclusions In the South Gippsland koala population, C. pecorum is widespread and common whereas KoRV appears less prevalent than previously thought. Further work exploring the dynamics of these pathogens in South Gippsland koalas is warranted and may help inform future conservation strategies for this important population. Implications Non-invasive genetic sampling from scats is a powerful method for obtaining data regarding pathogen prevalence and diversity in wildlife. The use of non-invasive methods for the study of pathogens may help fill research gaps in a way that would be difficult or expensive to achieve using traditional methods

Chronic intermittent hypoxia increases rat sternohyoid muscle NADPH oxidase expression with attendant modest oxidative stress

Chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) causes upper airway muscle dysfunction. We hypothesized that the superoxide generating NADPH oxidase (NOX) is upregulated in CIH-exposed muscle causing oxidative stress. Adult male Wistar rats were exposed to intermittent hypoxia (5% O2 at the nadir for 90 s followed by 210 s of normoxia), for 8 h per day for 14 days. The effect of CIH exposure on the expression of NOX subunits, total myosin and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) protein adducts in sternohyoid muscle was determined by western blotting and densitometry. Sternohyoid protein free thiol and carbonyl group contents were determined by 1D electrophoresis using specific fluorophore probes. Aconitase and glutathione reductase activities were measured as indices of oxidative stress. HIF-1α content and key oxidative and glycolytic enzyme activities were determined. Contractile properties of sternohyoid muscle were determined ex vivo in the absence and presence of apocynin (putative NOX inhibitor). We observed an increase in NOX 2 and p47 phox expression in CIH-exposed sternohyoid muscle with decreased aconitase and glutathione reductase activities. There was no evidence, however, of increased lipid peroxidation or protein oxidation in CIH-exposed muscle. CIH exposure did not affect sternohyoid HIF-1α content or aldolase, lactate dehydrogenase, or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase activities. Citrate synthase activity was also unaffected by CIH exposure. Apocynin significantly increased sternohyoid force and power. We conclude that CIH exposure upregulates NOX expression in rat sternohyoid muscle with concomitant modest oxidative stress but it does not result in a HIF-1α-dependent increase in glycolytic enzyme activity. Constitutive NOX activity decreases sternohyoid force and power. Our results implicate NOX-dependent reactive oxygen species in CIH-induced upper airway muscle dysfunction which likely relates to redox modulation of key regulatory proteins in excitation-contraction coupling

A morphological model for sexing nestling peregrine falcons (Falco Peregrinus Macropus) verified through genetic analysis

Adult peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus macropus) have monotypic plumage and display strong reversed sexual dimorphism, with females significantly larger than males. Reversed sexual dimorphism is measurable among nestlings in the latter stages of their development and can therefore be used to differentiate between sexes. In the early stages of development, however, nestlings cannot be sexed with any degree of certainty because morphological differentiation between the sexes is not well developed. During this study we developed a model for sexing younger nestlings based on genetic analysis and morphometric data collected as part of a long-term banding study of this species. A discriminant function model based on morphological characteristics was developed for determining the sex of nestlings (n = 150) in the field and was shown to be 96.0% accurate. This predictive model was further tested against an independent morphometric dataset taken from a second group of nestlings (n = 131). The model correctly allocated sex to 96.2% of this second group of nestlings. Sex can reliably be determined (98.6% accurate) for nestlings that have a wing length of at least 9 cm using this model. Application of this model, therefore, allows the banding of younger nestlings and, as such, significantly increases the period of time over which banding can occur. Another important implication of this model is that by banding nestlings earlier, they are less likely to jump from the nest, therefore reducing the risk of injury to both the brood and the bander.<br /