Unravelling mechanisms of dietary flavonoid-mediated health effects: effects on lipid metabolism and genotoxicity

Summary Consumption of foods containing flavonoids is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), possibly by lipid-lowering effects. On the other hand, for one of these flavonoids, quercetin, also genotoxicity was shown especially in in vitro bioassays. Therefore, the first aim of this thesis was to identify mechanisms underlying potential beneficial health effects of flavonoids. The focus was on hepatic lipid metabolism and circulating lipids and a molecular and physiological approach was used. Secondly, we aimed to study the potential in vivo genotoxic effects of quercetin by transcriptome analyses in liver and small intestine, since these represent the tissues of first contact exposed to relatively high levels upon oral intake of flavonoids. Circulating lipids are important CVD-related risk markers, which are in general determined with commercially available enzyme-based assays. However, the usual enzyme in these assays, peroxidase, has previously been reported to be inhibited by flavonoids. Therefore, we have studied in chapter 2 whether these assays can adequately be used in flavonoid research. We observed that various flavonoid aglycones interfere with peroxidase used in triglycerides (TG) and free fatty acids (FFA) enzymatic assays, reporting incorrect lower TG and FFA levels than actually present. Furthermore, addition of metabolites such as isorhamnetin or quercetin-3-O-glucuronide, the major metabolite of quercetin in human and rat plasma, to murine serum also resulted in a significant reduction of the detected TG levels, while a trend was seen towards reduced FFA levels. It can be concluded that when applying these biochemical assays, vigilance is needed and alternative analytical methods assessing FFA or TG levels should preferably be applied for studying the biological effects of flavonoids on TG and FFA levels. In chapter 3 mechanistic and physiological effects of quercetin on hepatic lipid metabolism were studied. C57BL/6JOlaHsd male adult mice received a mild high-fat (30 en%) diet without or with supplementation of 0.33% (w/w) quercetin for 12 weeks. Gas chromatography and 1H-NMR were used to quantitatively measure serum lipid profiles. Whole genome microarray analysis of liver tissue was used to identify potential mechanisms underlying altered circulating lipid levels by quercetin supplementation. Body weight, energy intake and hepatic lipid accumulation did not differ significantly between the quercetin and the control group. In serum of quercetin-fed mice, TG levels were decreased by 14% (p4a10, Cyp4a14, Cyp4a31 and Acyl-CoA thioesterase 3 (Acot3). Two relevant regulators, cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (Por, rate limiting for cytochrome P450 activities) and the transcription factor constitutive androstane receptor (Car; official symbol Nr1i3) were also up- regulated in the quercetin-fed mice. We concluded that quercetin intake increased hepatic lipid omega-oxidation and lowered corresponding circulating lipid levels, which may contribute to potential beneficial effects of quercetin on CVD. Subsequently, in chapter 4 effects of quercetin supplementation were studied in mice given a high-fat (40 en%) background diet. The set-up of the experiment was the same as in chapter 3, with the exception of the background diet that was used, which was different in fat content and composition. This high-fat diet-induced body weight gain, and serum and hepatic lipid accumulation, which are all known risk factors for CVD. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects and underlying molecular mechanisms of the effects of the flavonoid quercetin on hepatic lipid metabolism in mice given this high-fat diet background. C57BL/6JOlaHsd male adult mice received the high-fat diet without or with supplementation of 0.33% (w/w) quercetin for 12 weeks. Body weight gain was 29% lower in quercetin fed mice versus control mice (pCyp2b) genes, key target genes of the transcription factor Car, were down-regulated. However, the induction of omega-oxidation observed by quercetin supplementation to a mild high-fat (30en%) diet (chapter 3), was not observed this time with the high-fat (40en%) diet. Cumulatively, quercetin decreased high-fat diet-induced body weight gain, hepatic lipid accumulation and serum lipid levels. This was accompanied by regulation of cytochrome P450 2b genes in liver, which are considered to be under transcriptional control of CAR. The quercetin effects are likely dependent on the fat content and composition of the diet. In chapter 5 we investigated whether flavonoids from other flavonoid subclasses can exert the same effects as we observed for quercetin. Effects of quercetin, hesperetin, epicatechin, apigenin and anthocyanins, in C57BL/6JOlaHsd male adult mice fed a high-fat diet for 12 weeks were compared, relative to a normal-fat diet. High-fat diet-induced body weight gain was significantly lowered by all flavonoids (17-29%), but most by quercetin. Quercetin significantly lowered high-fat diet-induced hepatic lipid accumulation (by 71%). High-fat diet-induced increases of mesenteric adipose tissue weight and serum leptin levels were significantly lowered by quercetin, hesperetin, and anthocyanins. Adipocyte cell size and adipose tissue inflammation were not affected. The effects on body weight and adiposity could not be explained by individual significant differences in energy intake, energy expenditure, nor by differences in activity. Lipid metabolism was not changed as measured by indirect calorimetry or expression of known lipid metabolic genes in liver and white adipose tissue. Hepatic expression of Cyp2b9 was strongly down-regulated by all flavonoids. Overall, all five flavonoids lowered parameters of high-fat diet-induced adiposity, with quercetin being most effective. Next to the beneficial health effects of flavonoids, the safety of flavonoids is under discussion, mainly because of potential genotoxic effects found for quercetin in vitro. Therefore, in chapter 6 the in vivo genotoxicity of this flavonoid was studied by transcriptome analyses in two tissues, small intestine and liver, where the highest exposure to quercetin is expected. This is especially of interest in view of high intake by widely available food supplements. Quercetin (0.33%) supplemented to a high-fat diet was administered to C57BL/6JOlaHsd male adult mice during 12 weeks. Serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase levels revealed no indications for hepatotoxicity. General microarray pathway analysis of liver and small intestinal tissue samples showed no regulation of genotoxicity related pathways. In addition, analysis of DNA damage pathways in these tissues did also not point at genotoxicity. Furthermore, comparison with a published classifier set of transcripts for identifying genotoxic compounds did not reveal any similarities in the regulation of these classifier set by quercetin. Available microarray datasets of known genotoxic liver carcinogens, 2-acetylaminofluorene and aflatoxin B1 in mice were taken along as positive controls for comparison, and indeed showed genotoxic properties (regulation of genotoxic related genes) in the analyses. This transcriptomic analysis showed that supplementation with quercetin at ~350 mg/kg bw/day for 12 weeks did not induce genotoxicity in liver and small intestine. In conclusion, we have shown in vivo efficacy of flavonoids reflected by effects on metabolic health parameters, including hepatic lipid metabolism. These effects on hepatic lipid metabolism seemed to be related or influenced by the transcription factor CAR. The dietary contexts appeared to modify the health effects. The five studied flavonoids in general showed the same effects, with quercetin being the most effective. No genotoxicity of quercetin was found by transcriptome analyses in liver and small intestine. Overall, we have obtained indications for beneficial health effects of flavonoids in mice, which makes it interesting to study if these effects can be extrapolated to humans to further explore their potential as functional compounds of dietary flavonoid intake. </p

Quercetin induces hepatic lipid omega-oxidation and lowers serum lipid levels in mice

Elevated circulating lipid levels are known risk factors for cardiovascular diseases (CVD). In order to examine the effects of quercetin on lipid metabolism, mice received a mild-high-fat diet without (control) or with supplementation of 0.33% (w/w) quercetin for 12 weeks. Gas chromatography and 1H nuclear magnetic resonance were used to quantitatively measure serum lipid profiles. Whole genome microarray analysis of liver tissue was used to identify possible mechanisms underlying altered circulating lipid levels. Body weight, energy intake and hepatic lipid accumulation did not differ significantly between the quercetin and the control group. In serum of quercetin-fed mice, triglycerides (TG) were decreased with 14% (

Food safety hazards in the European seaweed chain

Seaweed is a source of protein that can help overcome the anticipated challenges of a growing world population and the current challenges for finding alternatives for animal proteins in the Western diet. Thus far, data on the safety of seaweed for feed and food purposes in the Western world are scattered. This study aimed to review the available knowledge on the presence of food safety hazards in seaweed, including factors influencing their presence, and to prioritize the hazards that may pose a risk to human health. Given current knowledge from the literature, data from the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed, and results from a stakeholder survey, 22 food safety hazards were ranked into major (4), moderate (5), and minor (13) hazards. Arsenic, cadmium, iodine, and Salmonella were identified as major hazards. Hazards, where data gaps exist, should be carefully assessed. These include pesticide residues, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls, brominated flame retardants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals, marine biotoxins, allergens, micro- and nanoplastics, other pathogenic bacteria, norovirus, and hepatitis E virus. It is recommended to collect more data on these hazards in future studies. Many factors can affect the presence of hazards including seaweed type, physiology, season, harvest and cultivation environment, geography including the location of cultivation, alongside further processing. Moreover, when seaweed is cultivated near industrialized or anthropogenic activities, these activities may negatively influence water quality, which can increase the likelihood of hazards in seaweed. Results of the ranking prioritized hazards can be used to prioritize monitoring programs and adjusted given future additional knowledge covering the data gaps.</p

Food safety hazards in the European seaweed chain

Seaweed is a source of protein that can help overcome the anticipated challenges of a growing world population and the current challenges for finding alternatives for animal proteins in the Western diet. Thus far, data on the safety of seaweed for feed and food purposes in the Western world are scattered. This study aimed to review the available knowledge on the presence of food safety hazards in seaweed, including factors influencing their presence, and to prioritize the hazards that may pose a risk to human health. Given current knowledge from the literature, data from the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed, and results from a stakeholder survey, 22 food safety hazards were ranked into major (4), moderate (5), and minor (13) hazards. Arsenic, cadmium, iodine, and Salmonella were identified as major hazards. Hazards, where data gaps exist, should be carefully assessed. These include pesticide residues, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls, brominated flame retardants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals, marine biotoxins, allergens, micro- and nanoplastics, other pathogenic bacteria, norovirus, and hepatitis E virus. It is recommended to collect more data on these hazards in future studies. Many factors can affect the presence of hazards including seaweed type, physiology, season, harvest and cultivation environment, geography including the location of cultivation, alongside further processing. Moreover, when seaweed is cultivated near industrialized or anthropogenic activities, these activities may negatively influence water quality, which can increase the likelihood of hazards in seaweed. Results of the ranking prioritized hazards can be used to prioritize monitoring programs and adjusted given future additional knowledge covering the data gaps.</p

Cleaning and disinfection in the Dutch red meat and game meat supply chains

Aim of the study Cleaning and disinfection agents are used in several steps in the red meat and game meat supply chains to ensure product quality, product safety, and to enhance shelf-life. The aim of this research is to investigate by literature study, questionnaires and interviews, which cleaning agents and disinfectants are authorised to be used and where and how they are used in the different stages of the Dutch red meat supply chain. Furthermore, knowledge obtained from this study is used to investigate the use of cleaning and disinfection agents in the Dutch game meat chain. Hygiene protocols and practices Stakeholders in both supply chains indicated that they work according to hygiene protocols as defined by branch organisations and the Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (NVWA). Procedures for cleaning and disinfection are laid down in protocols and/or Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) plans. The number of different cleaning and disinfection agents used by hunters and at farms is lower than in other parts of the food chains. In the transport part of the red meat chain, sometimes resources to correctly perform cleaning and disinfection are limited. How cleaning and disinfection agents should be applied is described in specification sheets and on the labels of the cleaning and disinfection products. Interviews with various experts showed that there is less knowledge about protocols and regulation related to cleaning and disinfection in some smaller companies compared to larger companies. Insufficient cleaning and disinfection procedures could occur in all parts of the chain due to insufficient knowledge or time limitations, which could lead to residues in food products. Main active compounds in cleaning and disinfection products The main authorised, active ingredients in disinfectant products that can be used as product type 1, 3 or 4 (PT1, PT3 or PT4) and are relevant product types for the red meat and game meat chains, include alcohol-based compounds (mainly ethanol and propanol); chlorine-based compounds (among others sodium hypochlorite); hydrogen peroxide (in combination with peracetic acid); quaternary ammonium compounds (quats) (mainly didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) and alkyl (C12-16) dimethylbenzylammonium chloride); aldehydes (glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde); iodine; and lactic acid. The active ingredients used for disinfection in the red meat chain, as indicated in the literature, interviews, and questionnaires were all authorised ingredients. Frequently reported used cleaning products or ingredients in the red meat chain in the Netherlands were hand soap, potassium hydroxide, and sodium hydroxide. Similarly, for disinfection agents frequently used ingredients were alcohol-based products, chlorine-based products (mainly sodium hypochlorite), DDAC, hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid. In general, cleaning and disinfection procedures and agents used during slaughter, storage and processing of game meat are comparable to those used for red meat. Residues and monitoring The monitoring on residues of cleaning and disinfection agents and inspections on cleaning and disinfection procedures are limited in the Netherlands. Data of slaughterhouses (2017-2018) show that no quats (benzalkonium chloride (BAC) and DDAC) were found in red meat products. Monitoring of the active ingredients frequently used in the red meat and game meat chains, and could therefore be present in food products, should be increased; these are quats and by-products formed by the use of chlorine-containing products

Chemical food safety hazards of insects reared for food and feed

Insects are a promising future source of sustainable proteins within a circular economy. Proving the safety of insects for food and feed is necessary prior to supplying them to the market. This literature review provides a state-of-the-art overview of the chemical food safety hazards for insects reared for food and feed, focusing mainly on transfer of contaminants from the substrate. Contaminants covered are: heavy metals, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, veterinary drugs, mycotoxins, and plant toxins. The twelve insect species reported as having the largest potential as feed and food in the EU are included. Transfer and bioaccumulation of contaminants depend on the chemical, insect species, life stage, and source of contaminant (spiked vs natural), as well as the particular substrate and rearing conditions. The heavy metals lead, arsenic, mercury, and cadmium can accumulate, whereas mycotoxins and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) seem not to accumulate. Mycotoxins and veterinary drugs could be degraded by insects; their metabolic routes need to be further investigated. Data are generally limited, but in particular for PAHs, plant toxins, and dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls. Further research on chemical safety of different edible insects is therefore warranted