Urban Rainfall Harvesting to Alleviate Water Shortages and Combat Desertification in the Arid Land of Jordan

Abstract: Water harvesting can alleviate the chronic water supply shortages in Jordan, increase cropping land area, improve the livelihood of population and eventually combat desertification. A systematic study was undertaken to evaluate the use of rooftop rainfall harvesting in urban areas, study the socioeconomic value, determine the optimum rainfall collection tank volume and the potential contribution of rainfall harvesting to the national domestic water supply budget. The potential water supply volume from rooftop rainfall harvesting can reach 14.7 million m 3 /year, comprising of about 6% of the domestic national water supply. Analysis of domestic water supply rate in relation to average rainfall depth and number of cisterns in each governorates indicated that the public water supply rate decreased in governorates with high rainfall depth and large number of cisterns. Cistern number among governorates increased with rainfall depth indicating a good adaptation behavior to water shortages. Optimum cistern volume charts were constructed for some governorates as a function of family consumption rate and house roof area. These charts can be used as tool to determine the optimum rainfall cistern volume as related to consumption rate and rooftop area. An immediate and nationwide awareness and legislative program is needed to spread rooftop rainfall harvesting among the whole population of Jordan and region with similar climates

Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Pollutant Levels in Wastewater and the Waters of the Zarqa River, Jordan

Assamra wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is the largest treatment facility in Jordan. Treated wastewater is discharged into the Zarqa River (ZR) and used to irrigate fodder and vegetables. ZR also includes surface runoff, stormwater, and raw wastewater illegally discharged into the river. This study examined pharmaceutically active compounds (PhAC) in water resources in the ZR basin. Samples of WWTP influent and effluent and river water from four sites along ZR were collected. Concentrations of 18 target antibiotics, one stimulant, and 15 other PhACs were determined in the samples. Five antibiotics were detected in WWTP influent (510-860 ng L-1 for n-ary sumation Antibiotics) and six in the effluent (2300-2600 ng L-1 for n-ary sumation Antibiotics). Concentrations in the effluent of all antibiotics except clarithromycin increased by 2- to 5-fold compared with those in influent, while clarithromycin concentration decreased by around 4- fold (from 308 to 82 ng L-1). WWTP influent and effluent samples contained 14 non-antibiotic PhACs, one simulant, and six antibiotics at detectable concentrations. The dominant PhACs were paracetamol (74% of n-ary sumation PhACs) in the influent and carbamazepine (78% of n-ary sumation PhACs) in the effluent. At ZR sampling sites, carbamazepine was the dominant PhAC in all cases (800-2700 ng L-1). The antibiotics detected in WWTP effluent were also detected at the ZR sites. In summary, water in ZR is contaminated with PhACs, including antibiotics, and wastewater discharge seems to be the main pathway for this contamination. The occurrence of antibiotics and other PhACs in the irrigated soil requires investigation to assess their fate