Managing social-ecological systems for resilience: Fisheries in the small reservoirs of northern Ghana

People in northern Ghana face an increasing number of challenges such as social change, political neglect, globalization and a lack of income generating alternatives. On top of this difficult situation they have to adapt to an increasing number of extreme climatic events that threaten the income from rainfed agriculture, their most important livelihood strategy. Hundreds of small multi-purpose reservoirs were built during the past 60 years to help the rural population deal with the difficult environmental conditions by enhancing flexibility and diversifying income sources. Fisheries in these reservoirs were assumed to be a rather incidental benefit. Growing uncertainty and difficulty in organizing a livelihood make it necessary to consider all of the possible uses of small reservoirs, including the use of small reservoirs for fisheries. This study aims to contribute to the resilience of the rural poor in the Upper East Region of Ghana to environmental disturbances through improved understanding of the potentials of fisheries in small reservoirs. Resilience is thereby understood as the potential to create opportunities for doing new things, for innovation and development, even, or especially, during times of disturbance or crisis. Results are based on empirical findings from three case studies. The first of three analytical steps focused on how fishing in small reservoirs and selling the catch influences the opportunities for doing new things, for innovation and for development. The second step analyzed the ecological potentials of the small reservoirs to provide aquatic resources. The third dimension of the analysis used the concepts provided by social network analysis to check the social potentialities for innovation and development necessary to realize the ecological potential of the reservoirs for improved human well-being. Results show that for most of those involved in fisheries, the income from these activities is among the three most important livelihood strategies and the income from fishing is lifting about 15% of the economically active male population in the study communities out of absolute poverty. Furthermore, the income from fishing and selling fish can be used to invest in other livelihood strategies, such as farming and gardening. The analysis of the fishermen’s local ecological knowledge shows that the small reservoirs have a natural fish production. Considering that there are a vast number of reservoirs not yet used for fishing, this means that many communities have a source of income and protein at their feet. With some training and access to gear, the resilience of many thousands of families could be increased, simply by using the naturally occurring aquatic resources in the reservoirs. Technical solutions to enhance fish production further are available at low cost. Unfortunately, the data base did not, however, allow an exact prediction of the reservoirs’ potential fish production. This is exactly the starting point for an adaptive co-management approach, which is designed for the work under high uncertainty. Yet the approach has a number of pre-requisites that need to be fulfilled in order to manage reservoirs for increased production. Results of the social network analysis show, however, that the implementation of a new management approach would be challenged by a lack of political will and funding. The analysis further reveals clashing traditional, governmental, and participatory management strategies, as well as generational conflicts, bad leadership and distrust. These problems are fortified by strong competition for water amongst the various water users, and low capacity of the communities to organize water use and maintenance of the infrastructure. Three development scenarios at the end of this study show that if no steps are taken to improve the situation, the scope of fisheries as a livelihood strategy to increase resilience remains limited. Yet if cooperation between science, politics and local stakeholders can be established to overcome problems of management, fisheries in small reservoirs have a great potential to strengthen the resilience of the local population.Management sozial-ökologischer Systeme für mehr Resilienz: Fischerei in den kleinen Reservoiren Nordghanas Die ländliche Bevölkerung in Nordghana muss sich einer Vielzahl von Herausforderungen, wie sozialen Veränderungen, politischer Vernachlässigung, Globalisierung, sowie einem Mangel an alternativen Einkommensquellen, stellen, um ihren täglichen Lebensunterhalt zu sichern. Zusätzlich zu diesen Problemen kommt eine steigende Anzahl klimatischer Extreme, wie Dürren und Überschwemmungen, die ihre Haupteinkommensquelle, den Regenfeldbau, bedrohen. In den letzten 60 Jahren wurden hunderte kleine, vielfältig nutzbare Reservoire gebaut, um für die wachsende Bevölkerung Einkommensalternativen zu schaffen, vor allem im Bewässerungsfeldbau und durch größere Viehherden mittels zusätzlicher Tränkmöglichkeiten. Die Nutzung der Reservoire für die Fischereiwirtschaft hingegen rückte bisher kaum ins Blickfeld. Ständig zunehmende Unsicherheiten und Probleme bei der Sicherung des Lebensunterhaltes machen es jedoch notwendig, alle möglichen Nutzungen der Reservoire zu erwägen, einschließlich der Fischerei. Durch ein besseres Verständnis der Potentiale der Fischerei in kleinen Reservoiren, möchte die vorliegende Studie zur Stärkung der Resilienz der lokalen Bevölkerung gegenüber den immer extremer werdenden Umweltbedingungen beitragen. Angelehnt an Folke (2006) wird Resilienz als Potential verstanden sich, trotz umweltbedingter Störungen und Krisen, neue Möglichkeiten zu erschließen sowie als Potential für Innovation und Entwicklung. Die Ergebnisse basieren auf empirischen Erkenntnissen aus drei Fallstudien an Reservoiren in der Upper East Region, Ghana, welche in unterschiedlicher Intensität fischereilich genutzt werden. Der erste von drei Untersuchungsschritten ist auf die Art und Weise fokussiert, wie sich das Fischen und der Handel mit Fisch auf die Potentiale neue Möglichkeiten zu erschließen auf Innovation und Entwicklung auswirkt. Der zweite Schritt analysiert das ökologische Potential der kleinen Reservoire hinsichtlich der Bereitstellung aquatischer Ressourcen. Mittels Konzepten der sozialen Netzwerkanalyse werden im dritten Untersuchungsschritt die sozialen Potentiale analysiert, die notwendig sind, um durch Innovationen bzw. verbessertes Management die ökologischen Potentiale der Reservoire zu realisieren. Die Analyse des lokalen, ökologischen Wissens der Fischer zeigt, dass sich nach dem Bau der kleinen Reservoire eine natürliche Fischpopulation etabliert. Dennoch gibt es in Nordghana hunderte Reservoire, die fischereilich nicht genutzt werden, da den Menschen weder Know-how noch Fischereiausrüstung zur Verfügung stehen. Die drei Fallstudien zeigen aber, dass Fischerei sich, wenn Zugang zu Know-how und Fischereiausrüstung besteht, zu einer wichtigen Einkommensquelle entwickelt kann, die immerhin 15% der männlichen, ökonomisch aktiven Bevölkerung aus der absoluten Armut hilft. Darüber hinaus hat sich Fisch zu einer wichtigen Ergänzung im Speiseplan entwickelt. Zudem kann das Einkommen aus der Fischerei und aus dem Verkauf von Fisch in alternative Lebenssicherungsstrategien investiert bzw. extreme Hungerzeiten können abgefedert werden. Kostengünstige, technische Lösungen zur Optimierung der natürlichen Fischpopulationen stehen ebenfalls zur Verfügung und könnten die Erträge steigern. Konkrete Vorraussagen zu potentiellen Steigerungsmöglichkeiten sind indes schwierig, da extrem variable Umweltbedingungen einer sehr schwachen Datenbasis bezüglich Fischproduktion in kleinen Reservoiren gegenüberstehen. Ein anpassungsfähiger Managementansatz, wie zum Beispiel vorgeschlagen von Berkes et al. 2001, berücksichtigt solche unsicheren Umstände, und empfiehlt auf unterschiedlichen Arten von Wissen aufzubauen und aus Fehlern und Erfolgen zu lernen. Eine erfolgreiche Umsetzung des Management-Konzeptes benötigt aber bestimmte Voraussetzungen, wie etwa good leadership, Vertrauen oder auch eine gemeinsame Vorstellung vom Ziel des Managements. Die Ergebnisse der sozialen Netzwerkanalyse sowie die Auswertung historischer Daten deuten auf mangelnden politischen Willen sowie fehlenden Finanzierung als Hindernisse auf dem Weg zu einem verbesserten Fischereimanagement hin. Desweiteren zeigt die Analyse, dass sich traditionelles und staatliches Ressourcenmanagement nicht einfach mit neueren, demokratischen Managementansätzen vereinbaren lässt. Schlechte Führung der Fischereigemeinden sowie Konflikte zwischen jungen und alten Fischern resultieren in massivem Misstrauen, welches eine koordinierte fischereiliche Bewirtschaftung der Reservoire unmöglich macht. Auch die Dorfgemeinschaften sind mit der Organisation der verschiedenen Wassernutzungen und der Instandhaltung der Infrastruktur überfordert, und durch die Knappheit des Wassers entsteht eine starke Konkurrenz unter den verschiedenen Wassernutzern, welche die ohnehin schwierige Situation verschärft. Drei deskriptive Entwicklungsszenarien am Ende der Studie zeigen, dass mit Zugang zu Know-how und Fischereiausrüstung die wirtschaftliche Nutzung der natürlichen Fischpopulation in den Reservoiren gesteigert und somit die Resilienz der lokalen Bevölkerung erhöht werden könnte. Die Möglichkeiten der Fischerei als eine Strategie zur Lebenssicherung bleiben allerdings beschränkt, sofern die problematische Situation im Fischereimanagement nicht verbessert wird. Eine gleichberechtigte Kooperation von Wissenschaft, Politik und lokalen Nutzern könnte helfen, die Managementverdrossenheit zu überwinden. Die Fischerei in kleinen Reservoiren könnte dann ihr Potenzial zur Stärkung der Resilienz der ländlichen Bevölkerung gegenüber den eingangs erwähnten Problemen entfalten

A Western Australian Survey of Breastfeeding Initiation, Prevalence and Early Cessation Patterns

Objective: This paper reports on current initiation and prevalence rates, in Western Australia, differentiating ‘any’ breastfeeding with ‘exclusive’ breastfeeding whilst exploring patterns and reasons for stopping breastfeeding. The results presented are part of a larger study examining women’s perceptions of care and wellbeing in the early postnatal period. Methods: A cross sectional survey was used to examine infant feeding practices during the hospital stay and at 9 weeks post birth from Western Australian women with a registered live birth between February and June 2006. Results: Data obtained from 2,669 women revealed a 93% (n = 2,472) initiation rate of any breastfeeding. More multiparous women (73.5%) were exclusively breastfeeding in hospital compared to primiparous women (65.2%), which decreased to 57.1 and 49.2%, respectively at 9 weeks. Of those who had ceased by 9 weeks, more multiparous women (71.1%) ceased before 3 weeks. Reasons cited for ceasing in order of frequency were insufficient milk supply, infant related reasons, pain and discomfort and emotional reasons. Younger maternal age, primiparous women, lower maternal education levels, offering a combination of breast milk and formula in hospital and caesarean birth were significant independent predictors of early cessation. Conclusions: Although initiation rates including “any” breast milk are meeting NHMRC dietary guidelines of 90%, the 60% target of exclusive breastfeeding is not being achieved for 3 months or in fact at 9 weeks. Targeted support for at risk groups such as younger, less well-educated, primiparous women must continue. Evidence based policies to protect breastfeeding must address the practice of offering formula to breastfed infants in hospital and the impact of increasing interventions such as caesarean births

A visual network perspective on social interaction and space: using net-map and wennmaker in participatory social-spatial research

Various network paradigm approaches are increasing in significance in the field of social-spatial sciences. In recent times, scholars engaged in research related to spatial features have more frequently grasped and explained social structures and discourses using an analytical network perspective. A relatively young strand of Social Network Analysis (SNA) is Visual Network Research, which uses network maps to gather and analyse social relationships, mostly using participative methods. This article discusses the specific possibilities and challenges that emerge by applying a visual network perspective in social- spatial sciences. Therefore, two different tools for visual data collection are introduced by presenting exemplary case studies that discuss the processes of space constitution. Net-Map is a pen-and-paper tool and is meant to manually draw multiplex networks in cooperation with interview partners or focus groups. By doing so, qualitative and quantitative network data are collected. Additionally, the influence, aims and roles of different actors are evaluated in relation, for example, to spatial scales or resources. The VennMaker tool offers cooperative network reconstruction through computer software. It generates a digital network map, collects quantitative relational and attributive data and provides a simultaneous qualitative triangulation of these data. Finally, the article discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the different tools and suggests a conceptual and methodological combination of Visual Network Research and the relational sociology of space for a richer understanding of social action and space.Die verschiedenen Zugänge der Netzwerkforschung gewinnen in den Raumwissenschaften zunehmend an Bedeutung. In jüngster Zeit nutzen Wissenschaftlerinnen und Wissenschaftler im Rahmen raumbezogener Forschungsarbeiten immer häufiger eine analytische Netzwerkperspektive um soziale Strukturen und Diskurse zu erfassen und zu erklären. Eine relativ junge Ausprägung der Sozialen Netzwerkanalyse (SNA) ist die Visuelle Netzwerkforschung, die mit Hilfe von sogenannten Netzwerkkarten soziale Beziehungen in meist partizipativen Verfahren erhebt und analysiert. Der Beitrag diskutiert die spezifischen Chancen und Herausforderungen dieser visuellen Netzwerkperspektive in der Raumforschung, indem er die Verwendung von Netzwerkarten in zwei unterschiedlichen Erhebungswerkzeugen vorstellt und raumbezogene Fragestellungen an exemplarischen Fallstudien diskutiert. Net-Map ist ein Pen-and-Paper-Instrument und ermöglicht das manuelle Zeichnen von multiplexen Netzwerken zusammen mit Interviewpartnern oder Fokusgruppen. Dabei werden qualitative und quantitative Netzwerkdaten, eine Bewertung des Einflusses, der Ziele und Rollen beispielsweise in Bezug zu Raumskalen oder Ressourcen der Akteure generiert. Die Software VennMaker ist ebenfalls ein Werkzeug zur partizipatorischen Netzwerkrekonstruktion, hier werden die Netzwerke zusammen mit den Interviewpartnern am Computer gezeichnet. Damit kann eine (digitale) Netzwerkkarte erstellt und zeitgleich quantitative relationale und attributive Daten erhoben und kommunikativ mit qualitativen Daten trianguliert werden. Der Beitrag diskutiert anhand der raumbezogenen Anwendungsbeispiele Vor- und Nachteile der beiden Werkzeuge und schlägt eine konzeptionell-methodische Kombination von Visueller Netzwerkforschung und relationaler Soziologie des Raumes vor, um so zu einem tieferen Verständnis des Zusammenhanges von sozialem Handeln und Raum zu gelangen

A Qualitative Analysis of Women's Short Accounts of Labour and Birth in a Western Australian Public Tertiary Hospital

This paper reports the findings of the postnatal qualitative arm of a larger study,which investigated women's prenatal and postnatal levels of childbirth fear. Women's expectations and experiences of labour and birth in a Western Australian public tertiary hospital were identified following thematic analysis of short written accounts from 141 participants who had given birth in the previous 6 to 14 weeks. Four major categories emerged to describe features and mediating factors in the trajectory of childbirth and the early puerperium "Anticipating Labour and Birth", "Labour and birth Depicted", "Mediating Factors and their consequences" and "Evaluating, Resolving, and Looking Ahead" portray women's comparative reflections on expectations and realities of birth, on mediating influences, and on moving on from their experience. These findings will provide maternity care professionals with insight into the personal and environmental features of the childbirth setting which colours women's recollections. Being aware of what women value during labour and birth will reinforce the need for professionals to provide care using a mindful approach that considers the potential psychological, emotional and behavioural implications of events

Can father inclusive practice reduce paternal postnatal anxiety? A repeated measures cohort study using the hospital anxiety and depression scale

Background: Perinatal research on anxiety and depression has primarily focused on mothers. We have limited knowledge of fathers’ anxiety during the perinatal period yet there is evidence that the parenting capacity of a person can be compromised by anxiety and depression. The purpose of this paper is to identify the impact of a father inclusive intervention on perinatal anxiety and depression. The prime focus of the intervention was to provide education and support to fathers of breastfeeding partners with the aim of increasing both initiation and duration of breastfeeding. Methods: A repeated measures cohort study was conducted during a RCT that was implemented across eight public maternity hospitals in Perth, Western Australia between May 2008 and June 2009. A baseline questionnaire which included the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) was administered to all participants on the first night of their hospital based antenatal education program and was repeated at six weeks postnatal. SPSS version 17was used for reporting descriptive results.Results: The mean anxiety levels at baseline for the fathers in the intervention group (n=289) and control group (n=244) were 4.58 and 4.22 respectively. At 6 weeks postnatal (only matched pairs), intervention and control group were 3.93 and 3.79. More intervention group fathers self-rated less anxiety compared to the fathers in the control group from baseline to post test (p=0.048). Depression scores for intervention fathers at baseline (mean =1.09) and at six weeks (mean=1.09) were very similar to fathers in the control group at baseline (mean=1.11) and at six weeks (mean =1.07) with no significant changes. Conclusions: Both intervention and control group fathers experienced some anxiety prior to the birth of their baby, but this was rapidly reduced at six weeks. Paternal anxiety is common to new fathers and providing them with information and strategies for problem-solving can increase their knowledge and potentially lower the risk of postnatal anxiety

Analyse des Politikintegrationspotentials der EU-Strategie für grüne Infrastruktur - untersucht am Beispiel der Gemeinsamen Agrarpolitik der EU

Die Strategie für grüne Infrastruktur (GI) der Europäischen Kommission stellt einen noch jungen, aber zentralen Beitrag der EU zum Biodiversitätsschutz dar, und zielt auf die Förderung von Ökosystemleistungen. GI soll hierzu in verschiedenen Politiksektoren integriert werden. Im Bereich der europäischen Agrarpolitik (GAP) wird ein kombinierter Nutzen zwischen landwirtschaftlicher und ökologischer Entwicklung betont. Problematisch ist jedoch die bisher unscharfe Ausgestaltung der europäischen GI Politik, die eine konkrete Abschätzung von Implementation und Wirksamkeit verhindert. Ziel unserer Untersuchung ist es daher, das Potential der GI-Strategie am Beispiel der GAP zu beurteilen. Hierzu wird eine vergleichende Betrachtung der Maßnahmenausgestaltung des Greenings der GAP und der GI-Strategie durchgeführt. Die Analyse zeigt, wie Elemente der Politiken in Kombination einen Aufbau von grüner Infrastruktur befördern können und wo Hindernisse und Probleme liegen. Unsere Untersuchung macht das Themenfeld der grünen Infrastruktur einer politikfeldanalytischen Betrachtung zugänglich. Hierbei wird das Konzept der Politikintegration zugrunde gelegt und mit einer prozessorientierten und strukturierenden, qualitativen Inhaltsanalyse verbunden

Global socio-economic impacts of changes in natural capital and ecosystem services:State of play and new modeling approaches

The year 2020 is a critical year for sustainable development policy and practice with the review and renewal of various international commitments including the Sustainable Development Goals, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Paris Agreement. The post-2020 agenda needs to be informed by more robust analytical approaches that capture the interactions between the economy, society and the environment. In this paper, we review the state of the art in available models and datasets that lay the groundwork for future analytical work to inform this agenda. Based on this review, we propose an integrated modeling approach for global analysis to underpin international policy discourse and advocacy, and; a sub-global approach focusing on evaluating specific strategies and policy portfolios to make progress toward sustainability commitments considering detailed local country context. Both approaches rely on integrating whole of economy computable general equilibrium models with spatial land use land cover and ecosystem services models. Endogenizing feedbacks between modeling system components ensures that evidence is based on interactions between all system components. Recent advances in methods, data and available tools discussed herein reduce barriers to entry for this type of complex systems analysis and increases the timeliness of policy advice

Market potential of nanoremediation in Europe – Market drivers and interventions identified in a deliberative scenario approach

A deliberate expert-based scenario approach is applied to better understand the likely determinants of the evolution of the market for nanoparticles use in remediation in Europe until 2025. An initial set of factors had been obtained from a literature review and was complemented by a workshop and key-informant interviews. In further expert engaging formats – focus groups, workshops, conferences, surveys – this initial set of factors was condensed and engaged experts scored the factors regarding their importance for being likely to influence the market development. An interaction matrix was obtained identifying the factors being most active in shaping the market development in Europe by 2025, namely “Science-Policy-Interface” and “Validated information on nanoparticle application potential”. Based on these, potential future states were determined and development of factors discussed. Conclusions are offered on achievable interventions to enhance nanoremediation deployment

Understanding actor roles in sustainability initiatives: an exploratory study in five European countries

Several strands of literature have developed around the ambition to influence or bring about transitions toward greater sustainability. In this context researchers have come to be interested in the types of actors involved in sustainability transitions and the roles these actors play. However, there is a lack of clear definitions of actors, and their roles. Our research takes an exploratory approach and is designed to describe and analyse the actors concerned and to identify their roles in sustainability initiatives. Our aim in doing so is to contribute to the body of scientific knowledge on transitions and to provide sustainability initiatives themselves with helpful information. Data were collected using the Net-Map tool, a well-established method in actor and stakeholder analysis. In our results we identify and define six actor roles: catalysts, opponents, intermediaries, frontrunners, drivers and visionaries. In the literature, particular roles are connected to common actor categories (civil society, governmental actors, private sector, etc.). Our results imply that sustainability initiatives are neither necessarily hindered by the absence of certain actors, nor are they hindered per se by the presence of an actor - rather, a broad mix seems to be helpful