Qualitative research : data collection & data analysis techniques

This book starts off with Chapter 1 which introduces us to qualitative research, an approach that does not deal with numbers per se, but, has guidelines and a systematic approach within a theoretical framework or design. The chapter also discusses the characteristics of qualitative research; and the differences between qualitative and quantitative research from a philosophical and theoretical perspective. Issues of reliability and validity are also dealt with in connection to the concept of triangulation. Then, how data is analysed is described in detail; and finally, some recommendations on choosing the most suitable software among the many qualitative data analysis software are given. Chapter 2 takes a look at interview as a viable approach in qualitative research. The popularity of the interview method is perhaps due to the nature of its ‘direct’ verbal interaction between the interviewer or researcher, and the interviewee. The chapters provides the characteristics of a good interview and the stages in carrying out interviews such as pre-interview stage (the selection of respondents/interviewees, selection and sequencing of questions); the actual interview stage; and the post interview stage. Besides this, tips on how to go abut organizing and analysing data are provided. Ethical issues and the reliability and validity of the method are also discussed. Chapter 3 discusses focus group interviews which is primarily ideal for exploratory types of research and designed for small group situations. This type of research technique allows free flowing conversation, which is informal, candid and captures the respondents’ feelings, attitudes and opinions on the topic or issues being researched on. Essentially, the data collected depends on how successfully the focus group interviews have been conducted and that would depend on a good moderator, i.e. researcher; focused and specific questions and a good facilitator to assist. Chapter 4 looks at the observational method of study and discusses the different types of observational techniques. As such, the researcher can be part of what us being observed, i.e. a participant observer as opposed to a non-participant observer. It is an excellent method for longitudinal studies in which one is trying to observe changes in behaviour, attitude or the impact of a certain policy/curriculum. However, it can be time-consuming and costly, as well as we may encounter difficulty in documenting data (jotting down or recording) while observing the situation. It can some times be an intrusion and thus, it is very important to find a balance between involvement and detachment; closeness and distance. As such, this method is best for experienced researchers, qualified and trained observers. Chapter 5 goes into diary studies and discusses the many types of diary studies available, their benefits and weaknesses, as well as steps to carry out a diary studies, and ethical issues at stake. The chapter also talks about diary studies not just being a descriptive account of happenings but rather going beyond this level to be more reflective and critical experience or phenomenon being studies. However, diary studies might not be suitable for some respondents, especially those uncomfortable with the writing mode and being self-critical and reflective. Thus the researcher should ensure that respondents are familiar with the diary studies genre so as to acquire a rich and descriptive data. Chapter 6 deals with the use of archival documents as another qualitative research tool. The chapter identifies factors that have contributed to the decline I the use of historical evidence; discusses the types of documents that are usually found in archives and provides basic knowledge of how to identify and analyses these documents. It also gives a detailed description of ethical issues involved such as ensuring that the information revealed does not implicate the owners/keepers of the document and clarifying the actual ownership of the data obtained. As with all other methods, archival document have their strengths and weaknesses. Chapter 7 discusses content analysis as the final method or tool in this book, content analysis is defined as using a set of systematic procedures to make valid inferences about the text which is most suitable for exploratory and descriptive studies. Thus, content analysis would mean not just merely counting or tabulating but rather investigating concepts, semantic relationships and meaning behind the textual surface to look at the lexical choices made. This chapter also looks at the steps in carrying out content analysis, the reliability and validity of content analysis, and its strengths and weakness. It is common and popular method that can be used in a wide range of different genres in communication-from novels and political speeches to the World Wide Web (WWW). Finally, as a concluding chapter to the book, Chapter 8 explains a crucial aspect of qualitative research-that is, how research reports should be written. Although there is no exact rule or format for writing research reports, the chapter goes through the most common parts which are usually found in a conventional research report-the abstract, table of contents introduction, literature review, methodology, data analysis and discussion. The rationale for each part is explained and suggestions on how to write effectively are also given. Essentially, the parts should be written with clarity and so that the reader/audience understands the report

Qualitative research : data collection & data analysis techniques

This book starts off with Chapter 1 which introduces us to qualitative research, an approach that does not deal with numbers per se, but, has guidelines and a systematic approach within a theoretical framework or design. The chapter also discusses the characteristics of qualitative research; and the differences between qualitative and quantitative research from a philosophical and theoretical perspective. Issues of reliability and validity are also dealt with in connection to the concept of triangulation. Then, how data is analysed is described in detail; and finally, some recommendations on choosing the most suitable software among the many qualitative data analysis software are given. Chapter 2 takes a look at interview as a viable approach in qualitative research. The popularity of the interview method is perhaps due to the nature of its ‘direct’ verbal interaction between the interviewer or researcher, and the interviewee. The chapters provides the characteristics of a good interview and the stages in carrying out interviews such as pre-interview stage (the selection of respondents/interviewees, selection and sequencing of questions); the actual interview stage; and the post interview stage. Besides this, tips on how to go abut organizing and analysing data are provided. Ethical issues and the reliability and validity of the method are also discussed. Chapter 3 discusses focus group interviews which is primarily ideal for exploratory types of research and designed for small group situations. This type of research technique allows free flowing conversation, which is informal, candid and captures the respondents’ feelings, attitudes and opinions on the topic or issues being researched on. Essentially, the data collected depends on how successfully the focus group interviews have been conducted and that would depend on a good moderator, i.e. researcher; focused and specific questions and a good facilitator to assist. Chapter 4 looks at the observational method of study and discusses the different types of observational techniques. As such, the researcher can be part of what us being observed, i.e. a participant observer as opposed to a non-participant observer. It is an excellent method for longitudinal studies in which one is trying to observe changes in behaviour, attitude or the impact of a certain policy/curriculum. However, it can be time-consuming and costly, as well as we may encounter difficulty in documenting data (jotting down or recording) while observing the situation. It can some times be an intrusion and thus, it is very important to find a balance between involvement and detachment; closeness and distance. As such, this method is best for experienced researchers, qualified and trained observers. Chapter 5 goes into diary studies and discusses the many types of diary studies available, their benefits and weaknesses, as well as steps to carry out a diary studies, and ethical issues at stake. The chapter also talks about diary studies not just being a descriptive account of happenings but rather going beyond this level to be more reflective and critical experience or phenomenon being studies. However, diary studies might not be suitable for some respondents, especially those uncomfortable with the writing mode and being self-critical and reflective. Thus the researcher should ensure that respondents are familiar with the diary studies genre so as to acquire a rich and descriptive data. Chapter 6 deals with the use of archival documents as another qualitative research tool. The chapter identifies factors that have contributed to the decline I the use of historical evidence; discusses the types of documents that are usually found in archives and provides basic knowledge of how to identify and analyses these documents. It also gives a detailed description of ethical issues involved such as ensuring that the information revealed does not implicate the owners/keepers of the document and clarifying the actual ownership of the data obtained. As with all other methods, archival document have their strengths and weaknesses. Chapter 7 discusses content analysis as the final method or tool in this book, content analysis is defined as using a set of systematic procedures to make valid inferences about the text which is most suitable for exploratory and descriptive studies. Thus, content analysis would mean not just merely counting or tabulating but rather investigating concepts, semantic relationships and meaning behind the textual surface to look at the lexical choices made. This chapter also looks at the steps in carrying out content analysis, the reliability and validity of content analysis, and its strengths and weakness. It is common and popular method that can be used in a wide range of different genres in communication-from novels and political speeches to the World Wide Web (WWW). Finally, as a concluding chapter to the book, Chapter 8 explains a crucial aspect of qualitative research-that is, how research reports should be written. Although there is no exact rule or format for writing research reports, the chapter goes through the most common parts which are usually found in a conventional research report-the abstract, table of contents introduction, literature review, methodology, data analysis and discussion. The rationale for each part is explained and suggestions on how to write effectively are also given. Essentially, the parts should be written with clarity and so that the reader/audience understands the report

Low birth weight in offspring of women with depressive and anxiety symptoms during pregnancy: results from a population based study in Bangladesh

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>There is a high prevalence of antepartum depression and low birth weight (LBW) in Bangladesh. In high- and low-income countries, prior evidence linking maternal depressive and anxiety symptoms with infant LBW is conflicting. There is no research on the association between maternal mental disorders and LBW in Bangladesh. This study aims to investigate the independent effect of maternal antepartum depressive and anxiety symptoms on infant LBW among women in a rural district of Bangladesh.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>A population-based sample of 720 pregnant women from two rural subdistricts was assessed for symptoms of antepartum depression, using the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS), and antepartum anxiety, using the State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and followed for 6-8 months postpartum. Infant birth weight of 583 (81%) singleton live babies born at term (≥37 weeks of pregnancy) was measured within 48 hours of delivery. Baseline data provided socioeconomic, anthropometric, reproductive, obstetric, and social support information. Trained female interviewers carried out structured interviews. Chi-square, Fisher's exact, and independent-sample <it>t </it>tests were done as descriptive statistics, and a multiple logistic regression model was used to identify predictors of LBW.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>After adjusting for potential confounders, depressive (OR = 2.24; 95% CI 1.37-3.68) and anxiety (OR = 2.08; 95% CI 1.30-3.25) symptoms were significantly associated with LBW (≤2.5 kg). Poverty, maternal malnutrition, and support during pregnancy were also associated with LBW.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>This study provides evidence that maternal depressive and anxiety symptoms during pregnancy predict the LBW of newborns and replicates results found in other South Asian countries. Policies aimed at the detection and effective management of depressive and anxiety symptoms during pregnancy may reduce the burden on mothers and also act as an important measure in the prevention of LBW among offspring in Bangladesh.</p

Prevalence and associated factors of depressive and anxiety symptoms during pregnancy: A population based study in rural Bangladesh

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Few studies have examined the associated factors of antepartum depressive and anxiety symptoms (ADS and AAS) in low-income countries, yet the World Health Organization identifies depressive disorders as the second leading cause of global disease burden by 2020. There is a paucity of research on mental disorders and their predictors among pregnant women in Bangladesh. This study aims to estimate the prevalence of depressive and anxiety symptoms and explore the associated factors in a cross-section of rural Bangladeshi pregnant women.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>The study used cross-sectional data originating from a rural community-based prospective cohort study of 720 randomly selected women in their third trimester of pregnancy from a district of Bangladesh. The validated Bangla version of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale was used to measure ADS, and a trait anxiety inventory to assess general anxiety symptoms. Background information was collected using a structured questionnaire at the respondents' homes.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Prevalence of ADS was 18% and AAS 29%. Women's literacy (OR 0.59, 95% CI 0.37-0.95), poor partner relationship (OR 2.23, 95% CI 3.37-3.62), forced sex (OR 1.95, 95% CI 1.01-3.75), physical violence by spouse (OR 1.69, 95% CI 1.02-2.80), and previous depression (OR 4.62 95% CI 2.72-7.85) were found to be associated with ADS. The associated factors of AAS were illiteracy, poor household economy, lack of practical support, physical partner violence, violence during pregnancy, and interaction between poor household economy and poor partner relationship.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Depressive and anxiety symptoms are found to occur commonly during pregnancy in Bangladesh, drawing attention to a need to screen for depression and anxiety during antenatal care. Policies aimed at encouraging practical support during pregnancy, reducing gender-based violence, supporting women with poor partner relationships, and identifying previous depression may ameliorate the potentially harmful consequences of antepartum depression and anxiety for the women and their family, particularly children.</p

Single Parenting and Child Behavior Problems in Kindergarten

Two waves of data from a sample of 89 poor and near-poor single black mothers and their preschool children were used to study the influences of parenting stress, physical discipline practices, and nonresident fathers’ relations with their children on behavior problems in kindergarten. The results indicate that higher levels of parent stress, more frequent spanking, and less frequent father–child contact at time 1 were associated with increased teacher-reported behavior problems at time 2. In addition, more frequent contact between nonresident biological fathers and their children moderated the negative effect of harsh discipline by mothers on subsequent child behavior problems. Specifically, when contact with the father was low, maternal spanking resulted in elevated levels of behavior problems; with average contact, this negative effect of spanking was muted; and with high contact, spanking was not associated with increased behavior problems in kindergarten. The implications of these findings for future research and policy are discussed

The James Webb Space Telescope Mission

Twenty-six years ago a small committee report, building on earlier studies, expounded a compelling and poetic vision for the future of astronomy, calling for an infrared-optimized space telescope with an aperture of at least $4m$. With the support of their governments in the US, Europe, and Canada, 20,000 people realized that vision as the $6.5m$ James Webb Space Telescope. A generation of astronomers will celebrate their accomplishments for the life of the mission, potentially as long as 20 years, and beyond. This report and the scientific discoveries that follow are extended thank-you notes to the 20,000 team members. The telescope is working perfectly, with much better image quality than expected. In this and accompanying papers, we give a brief history, describe the observatory, outline its objectives and current observing program, and discuss the inventions and people who made it possible. We cite detailed reports on the design and the measured performance on orbit.Comment: Accepted by PASP for the special issue on The James Webb Space Telescope Overview, 29 pages, 4 figure

Synthesis, structural, and optical properties of electrochemically deposited GeO2 on porous silicon

We present a method to synthesize submicrometer germanium dioxide (GeO2) on porous silicon (PS) by electrochemical deposition. The PS was electrochemically prepared in HF based electrolyte. GeCl4 was directly hydrolyzed by hydrogen peroxide to produce pure GeO2 and then electrochemically deposited on PS. The scanning electron microscopy results showed that the GeO2 structures are uniform in shape with diameter ∼500 nm. The photoluminescence spectrum showed a prominent peak related to GeO2 at about 400 nm. The results indicated potential applications of GeO2 on the silicon based substrate for future optoelectronic nanodevices in the visible region using a simple fabrication method