Promoting Federalism, IWRM, and Functional Approach to Water Governance under Ethiopian Water Laws

Integrated functional approach to water governance in a federal state structure can avoid vertical and horizontal conflicts. There are queries on how functional approach to water governance can be promoted in the context of federal state structure. Other concerns include linkages, the meditating factor demanding for reconciling competing water uses, integrated water resources management (IWRM) and integrated river basin management (IRBM). This article assesses the existing governance framework and its suitability to promote functional approach to water governance, reconciliations and policy options. There are inconsistencies in the Constitution, Federal water management laws, river basin high councils and authority’s laws, policies, strategies and the regulation that establishes and defines the powers and duties of the Ethiopian Basin Development Authority.  Moreover, there are missing links and integrations, centralizing tendencies and failures to accommodate and harmonize pluralistic and diversified local practices. The water laws need to integrate both the bottom-up approach (by empowering the grassroots and bringing efficient, equitable, and sustainable use of water) and top-down form of governance (to harmonize the inter-local linkages among and within regional states). The inter-state basin governance needs reform and the over-centralized role of the government to designate water institutions should be controlled. Reconciliation is mandatory for better empowerment, cooperation and harmonization at all linkages, levels and types of inter-governmental relations.  Key terms: Federalism, IWRM-IRBM, Functional approach, Water governance linkages, Reconciliation, Harmonizatio

Assessment of local land and water institutions in the Blue Nile and their impact on environmental management

Land and water institutions play a vital role in managing and sustaining land and water resources as well as enhancing economic development and poverty alleviation efforts. While a lot has been done in terms of understanding the micro-determinants of farmers’ decisions in land and water conservation, there is little attempt to understand the broad macro-institutional and organizational issues that influence land and water management decisions. The objective of the study was to assess institutional arrangements and challenges for improved land and water management in the Ethiopian part of the Blue Nile Basin (Tana and Beles subbasins). Focus group discussions and key informant interviews were held in Amhara and Benishangul Gumuz regions with important stakeholders such as the bureaus of Agriculture and Rural Development, Water Resources Development, Environmental Protection and Land Use Administration (EPLUA), National Agricultural Research Systems, and important NGOs, operating in the area of land and water management, and selected community members. As the major findings in this study, we outlined major land and water-related institutional arrangements that are currently in place and their design features, in order to identify those institutions related to superior performance. We highlighted major institutional and policy gaps and actions that are required to respond to emerging issues of environmental degradation, upstream/downstream linkages and climate change. Such analysis of institutions and their design features provides useful insights and contributes to the debate on institutional reform for improved land and water management in the Blue Nile Basin, in general. By doing so, it identifies the gaps in institutional arrangements and policies and potential remedies.Length: pp.185-231InstitutionsOrganizationsWater policyRiver basinsWater managementLand managementWatershed management

The Quest for Standard Tests in Prioritizing Water Use Rights in Ethiopia: Reasonable Use, Beneficial Use or ‘Beyond’

The use of water is a basic and universal human right while the right to use water is one of the most contested rights. There are common problems and debates in relation to setting the order of priority to promote equitable utilization aligned with equitable allocation under water resources governance. This article examines different literature, theories, laws and policies to search the standard tests. There are priorities related to conflicting interests. Moreover, there are problems of depletion, pollution, water grabbing, wastage of water, and water crisis that are attributable to lack of comprehensive regulations, or confusions in putting policy options. The regulatory tools lack clarity and sufficiency with regard to the incorporation of standard tests. There is thus the need for a relatively exhaustive order of priorities that embody human rights to water and other situational and policy justifications. The justifications are expected to reinforce the reasonable-beneficial use standard tests with due flexibility in re-ordering priorities where they are incompatible. The technical application of the standard tests in ordering priorities can control water grabbing and wastage of water. This requires policy options that are helpful to avoid water grabbing and water wastage thereby facilitating the attainment of the ‘highest social and economic benefits’.Key termsWater use, reasonable use, beneficial use, priority, Ethiopia, standard test, water grabbing, water wastag

Impacts of improving water management of smallholder agriculture in the Upper Blue Nile Basin

With its total area of about 200,000 square kilometers (km2), which is 20% of the country’s land mass, and accommodating 25% of the population, the Upper Blue Nile Basin (Abbay) is one of the most important river basins in Ethiopia. About 40% of agricultural products and 45% of the surface water of the country are contributed by this basin. However, the characteristic-intensive biophysical variation, rapid population growth, land degradation, climatic fluctuation and resultant low agricultural productivity and poverty are posing daunting challenges to sustainability of agricultural production systems in the basin. This calls for technological interventions that not only enhance productivity and livelihoods in the basin, but also bring about positive spillover effects on downstream water users. In this study, the farming systems in the basin have been stratified and characterized; and promising agricultural water management technologies, which may upgrade the productivity of smallholder rainfed agriculture while improving downstream water quality, have been identified. As a consequence, supplementary and full irrigation using rainwater and drainage of waterlogged soils are recognized as being among the promising agricultural water management technologies that can be easily scaled-up in the basin. The magnitude of the impacts of these technologies on the productivity of the upstream farming systems and the concomitant effects on the downstream water flow and quality are under investigation, assuming an assortment of scenarios.Length: pp.7-21River basinsFarming systemsCerealsRainfed farmingWater harvestingIrrigated farming

Household Food Processing Strategies to Improve Iron and Zinc Bioavailability in Ethiopian Dishes Based on Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) and Dry Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Pulses are major constituents of the human diet. Dry bean and chickpea, commonly grown in Ethiopia, are among the pulses that serve as important sources of energy and nutrients, particularly protein, minerals and folate. However, pulses also contain anti-nutrients which bind minerals, mainly iron and zinc, rendering them less bioavailable or unavailable for absorption. These anti-nutrient contents of pulses are a particular problem in Ethiopia, where the population consumes a plant-based diet and a large percentage of young children and women are affected by micronutrient deficiencies. The nutrient and anti-nutrient contents of raw, cooked, soaked-cooked, germinated-cooked and fermented dry bean (Hawassa Dume, Nasir and Red Wolaita) and chickpea (Habru, Mastewal and Local) varieties grown in Ethiopia were determined with the hypothesis that the iron and zinc bioavailability can be enhanced through processing methods applicable at household scale. In addition, the effect of soaking and germination on cooking time and the acceptability of dishes prepared from dry bean and chickpea were determined. Ferritin formation in the Caco-2 cell intestinal absorption model was used as a proxy for iron bioavailability. Fermentation of dry bean and chickpea flours significantly reduced the contents of anti-nutrients (phytate, tannin and polyphenols), as well as the phytate:iron molar ratio compared to unfermented samples. For most dry bean and chickpea samples, germination-cooking yielded superior results in terms of reducing cooking time, phytate, tannin, and phytate:iron and phytate:zinc molar ratios compared to cooking and soaking-cooking. Polyphenol contents were lower for soaking-cooking than for germination-cooking. With a few exceptions, the scores for sensory attributes of bean-based and chickpea-based dishes prepared from soaked or germinated samples were not significantly different than those of dishes prepared from untreated bean and chickpea. Among the unprocessed dry bean and chickpea varieties, there was significantly higher ferritin formation (better iron bioavailability) in Caco-2 cells exposed to Habru compared to the other samples of dry bean and chickpea varieties used in the study. Overall, soaking (18 h)-cooking resulted in higher ferritin formation for the dry bean samples. On the other hand, soaked (12 h)-cooked and germinated (72 h)-cooked in Habru, soaked (12 and 18 h)-cooked and germinated (72 h)-cooked in Local and germinated (72 h)-cooked in Mastewal chickpea resulted in higher ferritin formation compared to samples cooked without pre-treatment. Fermentation for 72 h was effective in increasing ferritin formation in all dry bean samples, but not in chickpea samples, with the exception of Habru. Although the expected improvements due to the reduced anti-nutrient contents were not confirmed by high ferritin formation in Caco-2 cells or by lowering molar ratios below critical values in all samples, soaking-cooking, germination-cooking and fermentation will still be effective with regards to lowering the total anti-nutrient contents

Enhancing farming system water productivity through alternative land use and improved water management of rainfed agriculture in Vertisol areas

Waterlogged Vertisols are amongst the high potential soils where management interventions could result in positive impacts. This study utilized soil, climate and crop and livestock productivity data and models to demonstrate intensification strategies which increase crop–livestock system productivity and to understand the effects of alternative land use and water management options on water productivity in the Vertisols areas. The areas have been classified into three slope classes including areas where artificial drainage is not feasible, where Broad Bed and Furrows (BBF) can be used to drain the excess water and naturally drained areas, represented by areas with 0–2%, 2–5% and over 5% slope steepness, respectively. Early planting of wheat (Triticum spp) using BBF on drainable areas and rice (Oryza sativa) or grasspea (Lathyrus sativus) on the flat areas were compared with the traditional practices. Yield and biomass data were obtained from research stations in the area whilst the effective rainfall and crop water requirement were estimated using CROPWAT Model. The feed value of the native grass and crop straw was estimated based on previous works. With respect to effective rainfall, the water productivity increase due to BBF over the control ranged from 5 to 200%, with an average increase of 57%. Despite higher water consumption of the rice, feeding its residues to livestock enhanced the overall economic water productivity of the system over the natural grazing or grasspea cultivation. Consequently, use of BBF enables growing high value or food crops of choice that may be sensitive to waterlogging whilst tolerant crops can be grown on flat lands allowing utilization of the full growing period. Coupled with livestock integration into the system, the alternatives can enhance food production and resource use efficiency from these ‘marginal’ areas