Periodization Strategies in Older Adults: Impact on Physical Function and Health

This study compared the effect of periodized versus nonperiodized (NP) resistance training (RT) on physical function and health outcomes in older adults. METHODS: Forty-one apparently healthy untrained older adults (women = 21, men = 20; 70.9 ± 5.1 yr; 166.3 ± 8.2 cm; 72.9 ± 13.4 kg) were recruited and randomly stratified to a NP, block periodized, or daily undulating periodized training group. Outcome measures were assessed at baseline and after a 22-wk × 3 d·wk RT intervention, including; anthropometrics, body composition, blood pressure and biomarkers, maximal strength, functional capacity, balance confidence, and quality of life. RESULTS: Thirty-three subjects satisfied all study requirements and were included in analyses (women = 17, men = 16; 71.3 ± 5.4 yr; 166.3 ± 8.5 cm; 72.5 ± 13.7 kg). The main finding was that all three RT models produced significant improvements in several physical function and physiological health outcomes, including; systolic blood pressure, blood biomarkers, body composition, maximal strength, functional capacity and balance confidence, with no between-group differences. CONCLUSIONS: Periodized RT, specifically block periodization and daily undulating periodized, and NP RT are equally effective for promoting significant improvements in physical function and health outcomes among apparently healthy untrained older adults. Therefore, periodization strategies do not appear to be necessary during the initial stages of RT in this population. Practitioners should work toward increasing RT participation in the age via feasible and efficacious interventions targeting long-term adherence in minimally supervised settings

Relationships between internal training load in a taper with elite weightlifting performance calculated using different moving average methods

Purpose: A simple and 2 different exponentially weighted moving average methods were used to investigate the relationships between internal training load and elite weightlifting performance. Methods: Training impulse data (sessional ratings of perceived exertion × training duration) were collected from 21 elite weightlifters (age = 26.0 [3.2] y, height = 162.2 [11.3] cm, body mass = 72.2 [23.8] kg, previous 12-mo personal best total 96.3% [2.7%] of world record total) during the 8 weeks prior to the 2016 Olympic Games qualifying competition. The amount of training modified or cancelled due to injury/illness was also collected. The training stress balance (TSB) and acute to chronic workload ratio (ACWR) were calculated with the 3 moving average methods. Along with the amount of modified training, TSB and ACWR across the moving average methods were then examined for their relationship to competitive performance. Results: There were no consistent associations between performance and training load on the day of competition. The volatility (SD) of the ACWR in the last 21 days preceding the competition was moderately correlated with performance across moving average methods (r = -.41 to .48, P = .03-.07). TSB and ACWR volatility in the last 21 days were also significantly lower for successful performers but only as a simple moving average (P = .03 and .03, g = 1.15 and 1.07, respectively). Conclusions: Practitioners should consider restricting change and volatility in an athlete\u27s TSB or ACWR in the last 21 days prior to a major competition. In addition, a simple moving average seemed to better explain elite weightlifting performance than the exponentially weighted moving averages in this investigation

Complex training and countermovement jump performance across multiple sets: Effect of back squat intensity

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the acute effects of back squats on countermovement jump performance across multiple sets using a strength-power potentiation complex training protocol. Fifteen elite volleyball players performed three unloaded countermovement jumps (CMJ) following three repetitions of the back squat performed at either 65% or 87% of 1-RM, respectively, repeated for 10 sets. A control session of three CMJs was also repeated for 10 sets. Mean jump height performance was enhanced compared to performing CMJs only irrespective of which intensity was used (65% 1-RM: +3.3 ± 2.2% [CI: 1.0 to 5.6]; 87% 1-RM: 2.6 ± 1.9% [CI: 0.7 to 4.5]). Subjects with a greater relative strength possessed a very likely large (97%; ES = 1.51) chance of improvement in jump height across 10 sets of the protocol prescribed using the intensity of 87% 1-RM and a likely moderate (89%; ES = 0.94) and very likely large (97%; ES = 1.76) chance of improvement in maximum concentric impulse (N·s) using intensities of 65% and 87%1-RM, respectively. Performance (jump height and maximum concentric impulse) may be enhanced across 10 sets of the strength power potentiation complex training protocol prescribed irrespective of intensity, with a greater effect observed for the subjects with a greater relative strength and with the 87% 1-RM heavy load back squat condition. In practice, coaches should consider the athlete’s strength level when designing such a complex training protocol to generate any post-activation potentiation effect across multiple alternating sets to enhance jump performance

Greater strength gains after training with accentuated eccentric than traditional isoinertial loads in already strength-trained men

As training experience increases it becomes more challenging to induce further neuromuscular adaptation. Consequently, strength trainers seek alternative training methods in order to further increase strength and muscle mass. One method is to utilize accentuated eccentric loading, which applies a greater external load during the eccentric phase of the lift as compared to the concentric phase. Based upon this practice, the purpose of this study was to determine the effects of 10 weeks of accentuated eccentric loading vs. traditional isoinertial resistance training in strength-trained men. Young (22 ± 3 years, 177 ± 6 cm, 76 ± 10 kg, n = 28) strength-trained men (2.6 ± 2.2 years experience) were allocated to concentric-eccentric resistance training in the form of accentuated eccentric load (eccentric load = concentric load + 40%) or traditional resistance training, while the control group continued their normal unsupervised training program. Both intervention groups performed three sets of 6-RM (session 1) and three sets of 10-RM (session 2) bilateral leg press and unilateral knee extension exercises per week. Maximum force production was measured by unilateral isometric (110° knee angle) and isokinetic (concentric and eccentric 30°.s-1) knee extension tests, and work capacity was measured by a knee extension repetition-to-failure test. Muscle mass was assessed using panoramic ultrasonography and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Surface electromyogram amplitude normalized to maximum M-wave and the twitch interpolation technique were used to examine maximal muscle activation. After training, maximum isometric torque increased significantly more in the accentuated eccentric load group than control (18 ± 10 vs. 1 ± 5%, p \u3c 0.01), which was accompanied by an increase in voluntary activation (3.5 ± 5%, p \u3c 0.05). Isokinetic eccentric torque increased significantly after accentuated eccentric load training only (10 ± 9%, p \u3c 0.05), whereas concentric torque increased equally in both the accentuated eccentric load (10 ± 9%, p \u3c 0.01) and traditional (9 ± 6%, p \u3c 0.01) resistance training groups; however, the increase in the accentuated eccentric load group was significantly greater (p \u3c 0.05) than control (1 ± 7%). Knee extension repetition-to-failure improved in the accentuated eccentric load group only (28%, p \u3c 0.05). Similar increases in muscle mass occurred in both intervention groups. In summary, accentuated eccentric load training led to greater increases in maximum force production, work capacity and muscle activation, but not muscle hypertrophy, in strength-trained individuals

Heart rate variability and direct current measurement characteristics in professional mixed martial arts athletes

This study’s purpose was to examine heart rate variability (HRV) and direct current potential (DC) measures’ sensitivity and correlations between changes in the acute recovery and stress scale (ARSS) and the previous day’s training load. Training load, HRV, DC and ARSS data were collected from fourteen professional mixed martial arts athletes (32.6 ± 5.3 years, 174.8 ± 8.8 cm, 79.2 ± 17.5 kg) the following morning after hard, easy and rest days. Sensitivity was expressed as a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, inter-day typical error (TE) or coefficient of variation (%CV) divided by intra-day TE or %CV). Correlations between HRV, DC and ARSS with training load were also examined. The SNRs for the various HRV and DC measures were acceptable to good (1.02–2.85). There was a 23.1% CV average increase between measures taken between different locations versus the same location. Training load changes were not correlated with HRV/DC but were correlated with ARSS stress variables. Practitioners should be aware of HRV/DC variability; however the daily training signal was greater than the test-retest error in this investigation. Upon awakening, HRV/DC measures appear superior for standardization and planning. HRV and DC measures were less sensitive to the previous day’s training load than ARSS measures

Effect of four weeks detraining on strength, power, and sensorimotor ability of adolescent surfers

Background: Surfing is a high skill sport that requires a considerable amount of time in a variety of ocean conditions to help develop the fundamental techniques. Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of four weeks of detraining on strength, power, and sensorimotor ability in adolescent surfers. Methods: Nineteen adolescent surfers (13.8 A 1.7 y, 53.6 A 10.8 kg and 165.1 A 8.9 cm) participated in four weeks of detraining (surfing participation maintained but resistance training ceased) following seven weeks of periodized resistance training. Maximal isometric strength, power, and sensorimotor ability pre-test results were determined from the conclusion (post-test) of the first seven-week training block while post-test results were measured at the start (pre-test) of a second seven-week training block. Results: Four weeks of detraining significantly decreased the following variables: Vertical jump height by -5.26%, (p=0.037, d= 0.40), vertical jump peak velocity by -3.73% (p=0.001, d= 0.51), isometric strength by -5.5%, (p=0.012, d= 0.22), and relative isometric strength by -7.27% (p=0.003, d= 0.47). Furthermore, sensorimotor ability worsened, with a significant increase of 61.36% (p=0.004, d= 1.01), indicating that athletes took longer to stabilize from a dynamic landing task. Conclusions: This demonstrates that surfing, in the absence of resistance training, is not a sufficient training stimulus to maintain physical characteristics. Adolescent surfers with a relatively low training age should avoid cessation of resistance training and strive to maintain consistent resistance training in conjunction with surf training in order to avoid negative decrements in physical characteristics that are associated with surfing performance

Complex training and countermovement jump performance across multiple sets: effect of back squat intensity

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the acute effects of back squats on countermovement jump performance across multiple sets using a strength-power potentiation complex training protocol. Fifteen elite volleyball players performed three unloaded countermovement jumps (CMJ) following three repetitions of the back squat performed at either 65% or 87% of 1-RM, respectively, repeated for 10 sets. A control session of three CMJs was also repeated for 10 sets. Mean jump height performance was enhanced compared to performing CMJs only irrespective of which intensity was used (65% 1-RM: +3.3 ± 2.2% [CI: 1.0 to 5.6]; 87% 1-RM: 2.6 ± 1.9% [CI: 0.7 to 4.5]). Subjects with a greater relative strength possessed a very likely large (97%; ES = 1.51) chance of improvement in jump height across 10 sets of the protocol prescribed using the intensity of 87% 1-RM and a likely moderate (89%; ES = 0.94) and very likely large (97%; ES = 1.76) chance of improvement in maximum concentric impulse (N·s) using intensities of 65% and 87%1-RM, respectively. Performance (jump height and maximum concentric impulse) may be enhanced across 10 sets of the strength power potentiation complex training protocol prescribed irrespective of intensity, with a greater effect observed for the subjects with a greater relative strength and with the 87% 1-RM heavy load back squat condition. In practice, coaches should consider the athlete’s strength level when designing such a complex training protocol to generate any post-activation potentiation effect across multiple alternating sets to enhance jump performance

Effects of upper body eccentric versus concentric strength training and detraining on maximal force, muscle activation, hypertrophy and serum hormones in women

Effects of eccentric (ECC) versus concentric (CON) strength training of the upper body performed twice a week for 10 weeks followed by detraining for five weeks on maximal force, muscle activation, muscle mass and serum hormone concentrations were investigated in young women (n = 11 and n = 12). One-repetition bench press (1RM), maximal isometric force and surface electromyography (EMG) of triceps brachii (TB), anterior deltoid (AD) and pectoralis major (PM), cross-sectional area (CSA) of TB (Long (LoH) and Lateral Head (LaH)) and thickness of PM, as well as serum concentrations of free testosterone, cortisol, follicle-stimulating hormone, estradiol and sex hormone-binding globulin were measured. ECC and CON training led to increases of 17.2 ± 11.3% (p \u3c 0.001) and 13.1 ± 5.7% (p \u3c 0.001) in 1RM followed by decreases of-6.6 ± 3.6% (p \u3c 0.01) and-8.0 ± 4.5% (p \u3c 0.001) during detraining, respectively. Isometric force increased in ECC by 11.4 ± 9.6 % (p \u3c 0.05) from week 5 to 10, while the change in CON by 3.9±6.8% was not significant and a between group difference was noted (p \u3c 0.05). Maximal total integrated EMG of trained muscles increased only in the whole subject group (p \u3c 0.05). CSA of TB (LoH) increased in ECC by 8.7 ± 8.0% (p \u3c 0.001) and in CON by 3.4 ± 1.6% (p \u3c 0.01) and differed between groups (p \u3c 0.05), and CSA of TB (LaH) in ECC by 15.7 ± 8.0% (p \u3c 0.001) and CON by 9.7 ± 6.6% (p \u3c 0.001). PM thickness increased in ECC by 17.7 ± 10.9% (p \u3c 0.001) and CON by 14.0 ± 5.9% (p \u3c 0.001). Total muscle sum value (LoH + LaH + PM) increased in ECC by 12.4 ± 6.9% (p \u3c 0.001) and in CON by 7.1 ± 2.9% (p \u3c 0.001) differing between groups (p \u3c 0.05) and decreased during detraining in ECC by-6.5 ± 4.3% (p \u3c 0.001) and CON by-6.1 ± 2.8% (p \u3c 0.001). The post detraining combined sum value of CSA and thickness was in ECC higher (p \u3c 0.05) than at pre training. No changes were detected in serum hormone concentrations, but baseline free testosterone levels in the ECC and CON group combined correlated with changes in 1RM (r = 0.520, p \u3c 0.016) during training. Large neuromuscular adaptations of the upper body occurred in women during ECC, and CON training in 10 weeks. Isometric force increased only in response to ECC, and total muscle sum value increased more during ECC than CON training. However, no changes occurred in serum hormones, but individual serum-free testosterone baseline concentrations correlated with changes in 1RM during strength training in the entire group. Both groups showed significant decreases in neuromuscular performance and muscle mass during detraining, while post detraining muscle sum value was only in ECC significantly higher than at pre training