Disodium 4,5,6-trihy­droxy­benzene-1,3-disulfonate dihydrate

In the title compound, 2Na+·C6H4O9S2 2−·2H2O, the benzene rings of the 4,5,6-trihy­droxy­benzene-1,3-disulfonate ions, which are stacked parallel to each other forming rods parallel to the a axis, are slightly deformed (planarity, symmetry) mainly because of the high degree of substitution. The two sodium ions, located within pockets of the anion rods, are coordinated by six and seven O atoms, resulting in octa­hedral and penta­gonal-bipyramidal coordinations, respectively. In addition to these coordinative bonds towards sodium, an extended network of intra- and inter­molecular hydrogen bonds occurs

Effects of root inoculation of entomopathogenic fungi on olfactory-mediated behavior and life-history traits of the parasitoid Aphidius ervi (Haliday) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

BACKGROUND Although most biological control programs use multiple biological agents to manage pest species, to date only a few programs have combined the use of agents from different guilds. Using sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), the entomopathogenic fungus Akanthomyces muscarius ARSEF 5128, the tobacco peach aphid Myzus persicae var. nicotianae and the aphid parasitoid Aphidius ervi as the experimental model, we explored whether root inoculation with an entomopathogenic fungus is compatible with parasitoid wasps for enhanced biocontrol of aphids. RESULTS In dual-choice behavior experiments, A. ervi was significantly attracted to the odor of M. persicae-infested C. annuum plants that had been inoculated with A. muscarius, compared to noninoculated infested plants. There was no significant difference in attraction to the odor of uninfested plants. Myzus persicae-infested plants inoculated with A. muscarius emitted significantly higher amounts of indole, (E)-nerolidol, (3E,7E)-4,8,12-trimethyltrideca-1,3,7,11-tetraene and one unidentified terpene compared to noninoculated infested plants. Coupled gas chromatography-electroantennography, using the antennae of A. ervi, confirmed the physiological activity of these elevated compounds. Inoculation of plants with A. muscarius did not affect parasitism rate nor parasitoid longevity, but significantly increased the speed of mummy formation in parasitized aphids on fungus-inoculated plants. CONCLUSION Our data suggest that root inoculation of C. annuum with A. muscarius ARSEF 5128 alters the olfactory-mediated behavior of parasitoids, but has little effect on parasitism efficiency or life-history parameters. However, increased attraction of parasitoids towards M. persicae-infested plants when inoculated by entomopathogenic fungi can accelerate host localization and hence improve biocontrol efficacy

Habitat-specific variation in gut microbial communities and pathogen prevalence in bumblebee queens (Bombus terrestris)

Gut microbial communities are critical for the health of many insect species. However, little is known about how gut microbial communities respond to anthropogenic changes and how such changes affect host-pathogen interactions. In this study, we used deep sequencing to investigate and compare the composition of gut microbial communities within the midgut and ileum (both bacteria and fungi) in Bombus terrestris queens collected from natural (forest) and urbanized habitats. Additionally, we investigated whether the variation in gut microbial communities under each habitat affected the prevalence of two important bumblebee pathogens that have recently been associated with Bombus declines (Crithidia bombi and Nosema bombi). Microbial community composition differed strongly among habitat types, both for fungi and bacteria. Fungi were almost exclusively associated with bumblebee queens from the forest habitats, and were not commonly detected in bumblebee queens from the urban sites. Further, gut bacterial communities of urban B. terrestris specimens were strongly dominated by bee-specific core bacteria like Snodgrassella (Betaproteobacteria) and Gilliamella (Gammaproteobacteria), whereas specimens from the forest sites contained a huge fraction of environmental bacteria. Pathogen infection was very low in urban populations and infection by Nosema was only observed in specimens collected from forest habitats. No significant relationship was found between pathogen prevalence and microbial gut diversity. However, there was a significant and negative relationship between prevalence of Nosema and relative abundance of the core resident Snodgrassella, supporting its role in pathogen defense. Overall, our results indicate that land-use change may lead to different microbial gut communities in bumblebees, which may have implications for bumblebee health, survival and overall fitness.status: publishe

Habitat-specific variation in gut microbial communities and pathogen prevalence in bumblebee queens (Bombus terrestris).

Gut microbial communities are critical for the health of many insect species. However, little is known about how gut microbial communities respond to anthropogenic changes and how such changes affect host-pathogen interactions. In this study, we used deep sequencing to investigate and compare the composition of gut microbial communities within the midgut and ileum (both bacteria and fungi) in Bombus terrestris queens collected from natural (forest) and urbanized habitats. Additionally, we investigated whether the variation in gut microbial communities under each habitat affected the prevalence of two important bumblebee pathogens that have recently been associated with Bombus declines (Crithidia bombi and Nosema bombi). Microbial community composition differed strongly among habitat types, both for fungi and bacteria. Fungi were almost exclusively associated with bumblebee queens from the forest habitats, and were not commonly detected in bumblebee queens from the urban sites. Further, gut bacterial communities of urban B. terrestris specimens were strongly dominated by bee-specific core bacteria like Snodgrassella (Betaproteobacteria) and Gilliamella (Gammaproteobacteria), whereas specimens from the forest sites contained a huge fraction of environmental bacteria. Pathogen infection was very low in urban populations and infection by Nosema was only observed in specimens collected from forest habitats. No significant relationship was found between pathogen prevalence and microbial gut diversity. However, there was a significant and negative relationship between prevalence of Nosema and relative abundance of the core resident Snodgrassella, supporting its role in pathogen defense. Overall, our results indicate that land-use change may lead to different microbial gut communities in bumblebees, which may have implications for bumblebee health, survival and overall fitness

Parasitism by endoparasitoid wasps alters the internal but not the external microbiome in host caterpillars

Background The microbiome of many insects consists of a diverse community of microorganisms that can play critical roles in the functioning and overall health of their hosts. Although the microbial communities of insects have been studied thoroughly over the past decade, little is still known about how biotic interactions affect the microbial community structure in and on the bodies of insects. In insects that are attacked by parasites or parasitoids, it can be expected that the microbiome of the host insect is affected by the presence of these parasitic organisms that develop in close association with their host. In this study, we used high-throughput amplicon sequencing targeting both bacteria and fungi to test the hypothesis that parasitism by the endoparasitoid Cotesia glomerata affected the microbiome of its host Pieris brassicae. Healthy and parasitized caterpillars were collected from both natural populations and a laboratory culture. Results Significant differences in bacterial community structure were found between field-collected caterpillars and laboratory-reared caterpillars, and between the external and the internal microbiome of the caterpillars. Parasitism significantly altered the internal microbiome of caterpillars, but not the external microbiome. The internal microbiome of all parasitized caterpillars and of the parasitoid larvae in the caterpillar hosts was dominated by a Wolbachia strain, which was completely absent in healthy caterpillars, suggesting that the strain was transferred to the caterpillars during oviposition by the parasitoids. Conclusion We conclude that biotic interactions such as parasitism have pronounced effects on the microbiome of an insect host and possibly affect interactions with higher-order insects

Ingredient and nutrient composition of experimental diets.

a<p>Provided per kg of diet: 7,000 IU vitamin A, 800 IU vitamin D3, 57 IU vitamin E, 3.4, menadione, 13 mg riboflavin, 64 mg niacin, 31 mg pantothenic acid, and 57 µg vitamin B₁₂.</p>b<p>Provided per kg of diet: 165 mg Zn as ZnSO₄, 165 mg Fe as FeSO₄, 39 mg Mn as MnSO₄, 17 mg Cu as CuSO₄, 0.3 mg I as Ca(IO₃)₂ and 0.3 mg Se as Na₂SeO₃.</p>c<p>ADF  =  Acid detergent fiber.</p>d<p>NDF  =  Neutral detergent fiber.</p><p>Ingredient and nutrient composition of experimental diets.</p

Approximate CFU/ml of <i>Brachyspira</i> spp. in inocula by days post inoculation and isolate.

<p>^*DPI  =  days post inoculation.</p>†<p>CFU/ml  =  colony-forming units per ml.</p><p>Approximate CFU/ml of <i>Brachyspira</i> spp. in inocula by days post inoculation and isolate.</p

Summary of fecal scores, <i>Brachyspira</i> culture results of feces and oral fluids, and timing of euthanasia of B204-inoculated pigs^a^,^b.

a<p>B204 = B. hyodysenteriae.</p>b<p>Sham-inoculated diet 1 group and sham-inoculated diet 2 group had a maximum daily diarrhea score of 0.1 on days 11 and18 post-inoculation and 0.2 on day 14, respectively; never had a positive Brachyspira culture; and were euthanized at 21 days post inoculation.</p>c<p>A fecal score was determined for each pig daily based upon the following system: 0 if normal, 1 if soft but formed, 2 if unformed with semisolid consistency, and 3 if severely liquid to watery with an additional 0.5 point added each for the presence of discernible mucus and/or blood (max score  = 4).</p>d<p>Distillers dried grains with solubles.</p>+<p>Positive Brachyspira culture.</p>s<p>Positive Salmonella culture at necropsy.</p><p>Summary of fecal scores, <i>Brachyspira</i> culture results of feces and oral fluids, and timing of euthanasia of B204-inoculated pigs^{<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0114741#nt107" target="_blank">a</a>}^,^{<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0114741#nt108" target="_blank">b</a>}.</p