Blood tests and fair competition: the biathlon experience

In recent years, some. international sports federations have introduced blood testing procedures that can lead to suspension from competition for athletes whose haematologic values exceed certain established limits. In 1994 the International Biathlon Union initiated a three-phase blood testing program to safeguard athletes' health and ensure fair competition. The first phase, lasting three years, was aimed at measuring the haematocrit values of biathletes in order to determine statistically acceptable limits for participation in competition. The second phase, lasting four years, consisted of pre-race testing for an increasing number of athletes and suspension from competition for those whose haematocrit values exceeded 52% for males and 48% for females. The results of this second phase (third phase now in progress) are reported. Progressive increases have been made in the numbers of countries examined, athletes tested, and tests performed. This retrospective study reveals a reassuring trend in average values for haematocrit and haemoglobin in the entire study population, a minimal number of athletes with excessive values and a consequent low risk of false positive results, an acceptable incidence of relatively high values (50% for males and 45% for females), and constant non-elevated haematological profiles for elite athletes. The variability in individual haematocrit levels among all biathletes with a minimum of four observations during the four-year period is also evaluated and discussed

Competition load and stress in sports : a preliminary study in biathlon

International sports calendars are being increasingly filled with competitive events and fatiguing travel, at the risk of overloading the athletes involved. The Medical Committee of the International Biathlon Union, in order to check for any significant changes, analysed seven recent competitive seasons, calculating the number of races and total and daily numbers of racing kilometers for each season. A theoretical model for stress was subsequently developed, based on identification and quantification of favourable and unfavourable factors, with establishment of average and maximal stress scores for each season. A questionnaire was distributed to athletes to collect data about daily stress levels, and the correspondence between the theoretical model and the athletes' responses was determined. This analysis demonstrates that the biathlon has become more demanding for those athletes in the racing circuit, with significant increases in number of races, total and daily numbers of kilometers raced, and average stress scores for athletes of both sexes. The self-reported daily stress levels for some athletes show an interesting correspondence with the theoretical stress model. If such correspondence is confirmed, this model might constitute an instrument with which international sports federations, considering the concentration of races, related travel and recovery times, could plan sustainable competitive calendars

Blood parameters and Biathlon performance

Background: Biathlon is a sport that combines cross-country skiing with rifle shooting. There is no well-described model of performance is this multi-sport event. This study aimed to identify the parameters influencing biathlon performance. In addition, the study aimed to search for a relationship between performance and measured blood parameters and to determine whether higher haemoglobin concentration [Hb] was associated with improved performance. Methods: Eighty-three male biathletes underwent pre-competition blood sampling in selected World Cup competitions. For all athletes (n=83) and for a subgroup of top-athletes (n=37), performance parameters identified were related to final standings by univariate and multiple regression analyses and, subsequently, to blood parameters measured on the same day. In athletes tested twice with different [Hb], performance corresponding to competitions with lower and higher [Hb] was compared. Results: Among the parameters considered, the percent variation for both groups in best skiing time and percent of missed targets were independent determinants of performance (R2=0.853, 0.834, respectively) and were not correlated to blood parameters. In athletes with two samples, despite significantly different [Hb], no corresponding changes in performance were observed. Conclusion: In this study, the determinants of biathlon performance were identified. A relationship between measured blood parameters was not found, and the individual [Hb] variations observed were not associated with improved performance

Anti-doping attitudes among elite athletes: a cross sectional study in biathlon using a suitably developed questionnaire.

BACKGROUND: The attitude of athletes towards anti-doping interventions was surveyed among biathletes by a properly developed questionnaire. METHODS: Topics and items were identified by a multidisciplinary team. A Demographics and an Awareness sections exploring respondents' characteristics and knowledge of the anti- doping rules were added. The anonymous, self-administered tool was distributed to athletes during two international events. Two hundred forty-four biathletes participated in the survey. The structure of the questionnaire, determined by factor analysis, included three domains: Safety (items n=12) Acceptance (n=11), and Satisfaction (n=13) exploring respectively the perceived protection from cheating, the acceptance of the limitations on daily activities imposed by the anti-doping interventions and the satisfaction with anti-doping rules and actions. The domain scores and a general anti-doping attitude score were calculated. RESULTS: The questionnaire, which displayed construct validity (r=0.500, p<0.001), good internal consistency (α=0.82) and significant acceptable test-retest reliability (k=0.59), revealed a good anti-doping attitude (general score: 64.9/100±8.8) and in relation to each domain a satisfaction of athletes with anti-doping interventions (65.3±13.6), good acceptance of the related restrictions (70.1±10.9), and concerns about safety (59.5±11.9), which was the lowest scoring domain (p<0.001). The degree of awareness, differently from age and gender, influenced the anti-doping attitude score. CONCLUSIONS: The new questionnaire revealed a positive mood of biathletes towards anti-doping interventions, pointed out their necessity of protection from cheating and highlighted the positive influence of awareness of the rules on anti-doping attitude. The questionnaire is not sport-specific, which allows any international federation to evaluate the impact of anti-doping strategies on athletes

Performance and blood monitoring in sports: the artificial intelligence evoking target testing in antidoping (AR.I.E.T.T.A.) project

AIM: Substances and methods used to increase oxygen blood transport and physical performance can be detected in the blood, but the screening of the athletes to be tested remains a critical issue for the International Federations. This project, AR.I.E.T.T.A., aimed to develop a software capable of analysing athletes' hematological and performance profiles to detect abnormal patterns. METHODS: One-hundred eighty athletes belonging to the International Biathlon Union gave written informed consent to have their hematological data, previously collected according to anti-doping rules, used to develop the AR.I.E.T.T.A. software. RESULTS: Software was developed with the included sections: 1) log-in; 2) data-entry: where data are loaded, stored and grouped; 3) analysis: where data are analysed, validated scores are calculated, and parameters are simultaneously displayed as statistics, tables and graphs, and individual or subpopulation profiles; 4) screening: where an immediate evaluation of the risk score of the present sample and/or the athlete under study is obtained. The sample risk score or AR.I.E.T.T.A. score is calculated by a simple computational system combining different parameters (absolute values and intra-individual variations) considered concurrently. The AR.I.E.T.T.A. score is obtained by the sum of the deviation units derived from each parameter, considering the shift of the present value from the reference values, based on the number of standard deviations. CONCLUSION: AR.I.E.T.T.A. enables a quick evaluation of blood results assisting surveillance programs and perform timely target testing controls on athletes by the International Federations. Future studies aiming to validate the AR.I.E.T.T.A. score and improve the diagnostic accuracy will improve the system

Searching for a tool to improve the anti-Doping action: the Project AR.I.E.T.T.A. (Artificial Intelligence Evoking Target Testing In Antidoping)

Background: Substances and methods used to increase the oxygen blood transport and the athlete's performance can be detected but the screening phase performed by International Federations remains a critical issue. The project AR.IE.T.T.A. aimed to develop a software able to analyze athletes’ haematological and performance profile and to point out those reflecting an abnormal pattern. Methods: 120 Athletes belonging to the International Biathlon Union gave their written informed consent to the study. The haematological and performance data, previously collected were used to develop the AR.I.E.T.T.A. software. Results: The software includes the following sections: 1) Log-in 2) Data-Entry: data can be loaded, stored and grouped 3) Analysis: data can be analysed, validated scores calculated, parameters displayed simultaneously as statistics, table/graphs, individual or subpopulation profiles 4) Screening: an immediate evaluation of the risk score of the present sample and/or the athlete under study can be obtained. The risk score is calculated combining different parameters, absolute values and inter-intra-individual variations considered concurrently with different weights. Conclusions: AR.I.E.T.T.A. software enables a quick evaluation of blood results, favouring surveillance programs and timely target testing controls on athletes by the International Federations. Future studies aiming to validate the risk score and to improve the diagnostic phase will enable an upgrade of the system