A VLP-based vaccine targeting domain III of the West Nile virus E protein protects from lethal infection in mice

Background. Since its first appearance in the USA in 1999, West Nile virus (WNV) has spread in the Western hemisphere and continues to represent an important public health concern. In the absence of effective treatment, there is a medical need for the development of a safe and efficient vaccine. Live attenuated WNV vaccines have shown promise in preclinical and clinical studies but might carry inherent risks due to the possibility of reversion to more virulent forms. Subunit vaccines based on the large envelope (E) glycoprotein of WNV have therefore been explored as an alternative approach. Although these vaccines were shown to protect from disease in animal models, multiple injections and/or strong adjuvants were required to reach efficacy, underscoring the need for more immunogenic, yet safe DIII-based vaccines. Results. We produced a conjugate vaccine against WNV consisting of recombinantly expressed domain III (DIII) of the E glycoprotein chemically cross-linked to virus-like particles derived from the recently discovered bacteriophage AP205. In contrast to isolated DIII protein, which required three administrations to induce detectable antibody titers in mice, high titers of DIII-specific antibodies were induced after a single injection of the conjugate vaccine. These antibodies were able to neutralize the virus in vitro and provided partial protection from a challenge with a lethal dose of WNV. Three injections of the vaccine induced high titers of virus-neutralizing antibodies, and completely protected mice from WNV infection. Conclusions. The immunogenicity of DIII can be strongly enhanced by conjugation to virus-like particles of the bacteriophage AP205. The superior immunogenicity of the conjugate vaccine with respect to other DIII-based subunit vaccines, its anticipated favourable safety profile and low production costs highlight its potential as an efficacious and cost-effective prophylaxis against WNV

A Recombinant Influenza A Virus Expressing Domain III of West Nile Virus Induces Protective Immune Responses against Influenza and West Nile Virus

West Nile virus (WNV) continues to circulate in the USA and forms a threat to the rest of the Western hemisphere. Since methods for the treatment of WNV infections are not available, there is a need for the development of safe and effective vaccines. Here, we describe the construction of a recombinant influenza virus expressing domain III of the WNV glycoprotein E (Flu-NA-DIII) and its evaluation as a WNV vaccine candidate in a mouse model. FLU-NA-DIII-vaccinated mice were protected from severe body weight loss and mortality caused by WNV infection, whereas control mice succumbed to the infection. In addition, it was shown that one subcutaneous immunization with 105 TCID50 Flu-NA-DIII provided 100% protection against challenge. Adoptive transfer experiments demonstrated that protection was mediated by antibodies and CD4+T cells. Furthermore, mice vaccinated with FLU-NA-DIII developed protective influenza virus-specific antibody titers. It was concluded that this vector system might be an attractive platform for the development of bivalent WNV-influenza vaccines

Die transkriptionelle Kontrolle der Virulenzgenexpression in Helicobacter pylori

The Gram-negative, spiral-shaped, microaerophilic bacterium Helicobacter pylori is the causative agent of various disorders of the upper gastrointestinal tract, such as chronic superficial gastritis, chronic active gastritis, peptic ulceration and adenocarcinoma. Although many of the bacterial factors associated with disease development have been analysed in some detail in the recent years, very few studies have focused so far on the mechanisms that regulate expression of these factors at the molecular level. In an attempt to obtain an overview of the basic mechanisms of virulence gene expression in H. pylori, three important virulence factors of this pathogen, representative of different pathogenic mechanisms and different phases of the infectious process, are investigated in detail in the present thesis regarding their transcriptional regulation. As an essential factor for the early phase of infection, including the colonisation of the gastric mucosa, the flagella are analysed; the chaperones including the putative adhesion factors GroEL and DnaK are investigated as representatives of the phase of adherence to the gastric epithelium and persistence in the mucus layer; and finally the cytotoxin associated antigen CagA is analysed as representative of the cag pathogenicity island, which is supposed to account for the phenomena of chronic inflammation and tissue damage observed in the later phases of infection. RNA analyses and in vitro transcription demonstrate that a single promoter regulates expression of cagA, while two promoters are responsible for expression of the upstream divergently transcribed cagB gene. All three promoters are shown to be recognised by RNA polymerase containing the vegetative sigma factor sigma 80. Promoter deletion analyses establish that full activation of the cagA promoter requires sequences up to -70 and binding of the C-terminal portion of the alpha subunit of RNA polymerase to an UP-like element located between -40 and -60, while full activation of the major cagB promoter requires sequences upstream of -96 which overlap with the cagA promoter. These data suggest that the promoters of the pathogenicity island represent a class of minimum promoters, that ensure a basic level of transcription, while full activation requires regulatory elements or structural DNA binding proteins that provide a suitable DNA context. Regarding flagellar biosynthesis, a master transcriptional factor is identified that regulates expression of a series of flagellar basal body and hook genes in concert with the alternative sigma factor sigma 54. Evidence is provided that this regulator, designated FlgR (for flagellar regulatory protein), is necessary for motility and transcription of five promoters for seven basal body and hook genes. In addition, FlgR is shown to act as a repressor of transcription of the sigma 28-regulated promoter of the flaA gene, while changes in DNA topology are shown to affect transcription of the sigma 54-regulated flaB promoter. These data indicate that the regulatory network that governs flagellar gene expression in H. pylori shows similarities to the systems of both Salmonella spp. and Caulobacter crescentus. In contrast to the flagellar genes which are regulated by three different sigma factors, the three operons encoding the major chaperones of H. pylori are shown to be transcribed by RNA polymerase containing the vegetative sigma factor sigma 80. Expression of these operons is shown to be regulated negatively by the transcriptional repressor HspR, a homologue of a repressor protein of Streptomyces spp., known to be involved in negative regulation of heat shock genes. In vitro studies with purified recombinant HspR establish that the protein represses transcription by binding to large DNA regions centered around the transcription initiation site in the case of one promoter, and around -85 and -120 in the case of the the other two promoters. In contrast to the situation in Streptomyces, where transcription of HspR-regulated genes is induced in response to heat shock, transcription of the HspR-dependent genes in H. pylori is not inducible with thermal stimuli. Transcription of two of the three chaperone encoding operons is induced by osmotic shock, while transcription of the third operon, although HspR-dependent, is not affected by salt treatment. Taken together, the analyses carried out indicate that H. pylori has reduced its repertoire of specific regulatory proteins to a basic level that may ensure coordinate regulation of those factors that are necessary during the initial phase of infection including the passage through the gastric lumen and the colonisation of the gastric mucosa. The importance of DNA topology and/or context for transcription of many virulence gene promoters may on the other hand indicate, that a sophisticated global regulatory network is present in H. pylori, which influences transcription of specific subsets of virulence genes in response to changes in the microenvironment.Das Gram-negative, spiralförmige Bakterium Helicobacter pylori verursacht verschiedene Krankheiten des oberen Verauungstraktes, wie z.B. chronische superfizielle Gastritis, chronische aktive Gastritis, Ulzera und Magenkarzinom. Obwohl viele der bakteriellen Faktoren, die zur Entwicklung dieser Krankheitsformen beitragen, in den letzten Jahren untersucht wurden, sind die molekularen Mechanismen, die die Expression dieser Faktoren regulieren, noch weitgehend unbekannt. Als Ansatz zur Untersuchung der grundlegenden Mechanismen der Virulenzgenexpression in H. pylori wurden in der vorliegenden Arbeit drei wichtige Virulenzfaktoren repräsentativ für die verschiedenen Phasen des Infektionsprozesses ausgewählt und in Bezug auf ihre transkriptionelle Regulation analysiert. Als essentielle Faktoren für die frühe Phase der Infektion, gekennzeichnet durch die Erstbesiedelung der Schleimschicht des Magens durch die Bakterien, wurden die Flagellen untersucht. Die Chaperone-Proteine mit den mutmaßlichen Adhärenzfaktoren GroEL und DnaK wurden stellvertretend für die Phase der Adhäsion an die Magenepithelzellen und die anschließende persistente Besiedelung der Magenschleimhaut analysiert. Als Verteter der cag Pathogenitätsinsel, die mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit für die chronische Entzündung und Schädigung des Magengewebes in den späteren Phasen der Infektion verantwortlich ist, wurde schließlich das sogenannte Cytotoxin-assoziierte Antigen CagA untersucht. RNA-Analysen und in vitro-Transkriptionsstudien konnten zeigen, daß die Transkription des cagA-Gens von einem einzigen Promotor aus gesteuert wird, während die Expression des stromaufwärts gelegenen divergenten cagB-Gens von zwei Promotoren reguliert wird. Alle drei Promotoren werden von der vegetativen, sigma 80-enthaltenden RNA-Polymerase erkannt. Durch die Einführung spezifischer Deletionen zwischen cagA und cagB konnte weiterhin gezeigt werden, daß zur vollständigen Aktivierung des cagA-Promoters Sequenzen bis -70 sowie die Bindung der alpha-Untereinheit der RNA-Polymerase an ein UP-ähnliches Element zwischen -40 und -60 erforderlich sind, während die vollständige Aktivierung des wichtigsten cagB-Promotors Sequenzen oberhalb von -96 erfordert, die mit denjenigen des cagA Promoters überlappen. Diese Daten lassen darauf schließen, daß die Promotoren der Pathogenitätsinsel eine Klasse von Minimalpromotoren darstellen, die ein geringes Niveau an Transkription garantieren, für ihre volle Aktivierung aber regulatorische Elemente oder strukturelle DNA-bindende Proteine benötigen, die ein spezielles topologisches Umfeld produzieren. Bezüglich der Flagellen konnte ein zentraler Transkriptionsfaktor identifiziert werden, der in Kooperation mit dem alternativen Sigma-Faktor sigma 54 die Expression einer Serie von Genen kontrolliert, die für strukturelle Komponenten des Flagellenkörpers kodieren. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß dieser Faktor (genannt FlgR für Flagellen-Regulator) für die Motilität der Bakterien notwendig ist und die Transkription von fünf Operonen reguliert, die für sieben strukturelle Gene des Flagellen-Basalkörpers und -Hakens kodieren. Darüberhinaus reprimiert FlgR die Transkription des sigma 28-regulierten flaA-Gens, während Änderungen der DNA-Topologie die Transkription des sigma 54-regulierten flaB-Promotors beeinflussen. Diese Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, daß das regulatorische Netzwerk, welches die Expression der strukturellen Komponenten der Flagellen in H. pylori kontrolliert, Ähnlichkeiten zu den in Caulobacter crescentus und Salmonella spp. beschriebenen Systemen aufweist. Im Gegensatz zu den Flagellengenen, die von drei verschiedenen Sigma-Faktoren reguliert werden, konnte im Fall der drei Operone, die für die Haupt-Chaperone von H. pylori kodieren, eine sigma 80-abhängige Transkription nachgewiesen werden. Die Expression dieser Operone wird darüberhinaus negativ reguliert durch den transkriptionellen Repressor HspR, ein Homolog des gleichnamigen Hitzeschockrepressors von Streptomyces spp. In vitro-Experimente mit gereinigtem rekombinantem HspR konnten zeigen, daß das Protein die Transkription durch die Bindung an große DNA Regionen reprimiert, die in einem Fall mit dem Transkriptionsstart überlappen, und in den anderen beiden Fällen um -85 bzw. -120 lokalisiert sind. Im Gegensatz zur Situation in Streptomyces, wo die Transkription HspR-abhängiger Gene durch Hitzeschock induziert werden kann, ist die Transkription der HspR-regulierten Gene in H. pylori nicht mit Temperaturerhöhungen induzierbar. Die Expression zweier der drei Chaperone-kodierenden Operone kann dagegen durch osmotischen Schock induziert werden, während die Transkription des dritten Operons, trotz seiner HspR-Abhängigkeit, nicht durch osmotische Reize beeinflußbar ist. In ihrer Gesamtheit lassen die transkriptionellen Analysen der verschiedenen Virulenzfaktoren darauf schließen, daß H. pylori sein Repertoire an spezifischen regulatorischen Genen auf ein minimales Niveau reduziert hat, das die koordinierte Regulation derjenigen Faktoren sicherstellt, die für die Anfangsphase der Infektion, namentlich die Durchquerung des Magenlumens und die Erstbesiedelung des Magenepithels, notwendig sind. Die Bedeutung von DNA-Topologie und -Kontext für die Transkription vieler Virulenzgene könnte andererseits auf die Anwesenheit eines hochentwickelten globalen regulatorischen Netzwerkes hinweisen, welches die Transkription spezifischer Untergruppen von Virulenzgenen in Reaktion auf bestimmte Umweltfaktoren beeinflußt

Characterization of the HspR-Mediated Stress Response in Helicobacter pylori

The major heat shock genes of Helicobacter pylori are regulated by the HspR repressor. In the present study we characterize the transcriptional response of the three known HspR-dependent promoters P(cbp), P(gro), and P(hrc) to different environmental stresses. A temperature shift from 37 to 42°C causes a typical heat shock response at all three promoters characterized by an immediate and strong induction phase of transcription and a subsequent adaptation phase, which is specific for each promoter and whose onset is determined partially by the half-lives of the respective mRNAs. Exposure to high osmolarity induces a similar response on the P(gro) and P(cbp) promoters while no such response is detectable at the P(hrc) promoter. Puromycin treatment induces transcription from all three HspR-dependent promoters, indicating that different environmental stresses are intracellularly sensed by the regulatory machinery through the accumulation of nonnative proteins. The implications of these data for the regulatory network controlling the heat shock response in H. pylori are discussed

Endogenous polyclonal anti-IL-1 antibody responses potentiate IL-1 activity during pathogenic inflammation

BACKGROUND Particular neutralizing mAbs to certain cytokines act as agonists in vivo through protection of the cytokine's active site and prolongation of its half-life. Although this principle might be useful for targeted immunotherapy, its role in the pathogenesis of inflammation and autoimmunity is unclear. OBJECTIVE We sought to determine whether slight, structurally nonrelevant modifications of the prototypic proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β during an immune response could elicit polyclonal anti-IL-1β antibody responses that modulated IL-1β's in vivo activity. METHODS We engineered 2 different IL-1β variants, thereby mimicking the process of cytokine modification occurring during inflammation, and conjugated them to virus-like particles, followed by immunization of mice. The resulting polyclonal anti-IL-1β antibody responses were assessed by using in vitro and in vivo assays, as well as 2 relevant (auto-) inflammatory murine models. RESULTS Although antibody responses generated to one variant were potently inhibiting IL-1β, antibody responses induced by the other variant even potentiated the in vivo effects of IL-1β; the latter led to enhanced morbidity in 2 different IL-1β-mediated mouse models, including a model of inflammatory bowel disease and an inflammatory arthritis model. CONCLUSION These data demonstrate that endogenous polyclonal anti-cytokine antibody responses can enhance the cytokine's activity in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases

Transcriptional Regulation of Stress Response and Motility Functions in Helicobacter pylori Is Mediated by HspR and HrcA▿

The hrcA and hspR genes of Helicobacter pylori encode two transcriptional repressor proteins that negatively regulate expression of the groES-groEL and hrcA-grpE-dnaK operons. While HspR was previously shown to bind far upstream of the promoters transcribing these operons, the binding sites of HrcA were not identified. Here, we demonstrate by footprinting analysis that HrcA binds to operator elements similar to the so-called CIRCE sequences overlapping both promoters. Binding of HspR and HrcA to their respective operators occurs in an independent manner, but the DNA binding activity of HrcA is increased in the presence of GroESL, suggesting that the GroE chaperonin system corepresses transcription together with HrcA. Comparative transcriptome analysis of the wild-type strain and hspR and hrcA singly and doubly deficient strains revealed that a set of 14 genes is negatively regulated by the action of one or both regulators, while a set of 29 genes is positively regulated. While both positive and negative regulation of transcription by HspR and/or HrcA could be confirmed by RNA primer extension analyses for two representative genes, binding of either regulator to the promoters could not be detected, indicating that transcriptional regulation at these promoters involves indirect mechanisms. Strikingly, 14 of the 29 genes which were found to be positively regulated by HspR or HrcA code for proteins involved in flagellar biosynthesis. Accordingly, loss of motility functions was observed for HspR and HrcA single or double mutants. The possible regulatory intersections of the heat shock response and flagellar assembly are discussed

CrgA Is an Inducible LysR-Type Regulator of Neisseria meningitidis, Acting both as a Repressor and as an Activator of Gene Transcription

The crgA gene of Neisseria meningitidis, which codes for a LysR-type regulator, is divergently oriented with respect to the mdaB gene, which codes for a hypothetical NADPH-quinone oxidoreductase. Transcriptional studies of the intergenic region between crgA and mdaB showed that two overlapping and divergent promoters, P(crgA) and P(mdaB), control transcription of these genes. Deletion of the crgA gene led to a strong increase in transcription from the P(crgA) promoter and a concomitant strong decrease in transcription from the P(mdaB) promoter, indicating that CrgA acts both as an autorepressor of transcription at its own promoter and as an activator of transcription at the mdaB promoter. Addition of α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone (MBL), an inducer of NADPH-quinone oxidoreductase, to wild-type N. meningitidis cells specifically resulted in further activation of transcription of the P(mdaB) promoter and more repression of transcription of the P(crgA) promoter. No such regulation was observed when MBL was added to crgA-deficient cells, indicating that the transcriptional response to MBL is CrgA mediated. Under the same experimental conditions, no regulation of transcription by either CrgA or MBL was detected at the pilus and capsule genes. The role of CrgA in the regulation of gene expression during the infectious cycle of N. meningitidis is discussed

Dual Control of Helicobacter pylori Heat Shock Gene Transcription by HspR and HrcA

The HspR repressor regulates transcription of the groESL, hrcA-grpE-dnaK, and cbpA-hspR-orf operons of Helicobacter pylori. Here we show that two of the HspR-regulated operons, namely, the groESL and dnaK operons, encoding the major cellular chaperone machineries are also regulated by the H. pylori homologue of the HrcA repressor. Similarly to the hspR mutation, deletion of the hrcA gene also leads to complete derepression of the P(gro) and P(hrc) promoters. The presence of both HspR and HrcA is therefore necessary for regulated transcription from these promoters. HrcA binds directly to P(gro) and P(hrc), likely contacting two inverted repeats with similarity to the CIRCE motif, which are present on both promoters. HrcA regulation is, however, shown to depend on binding of the HspR protein, since deletion of the HspR-binding site of the P(gro) promoter leads to loss of heat inducibility of this promoter. In contrast, transcription from the P(cbp) promoter is regulated solely by HspR. HspR is also shown to form oligomers in vivo through a stretch of hydrophobic repeats between amino acid positions 66 and 97. The implications of these findings for the elucidation of the networks regulating heat shock gene expression in H. pylori are discussed