Caractérisation texturale des assemblages métal-silicate lors de la différenciation des planétésimaux : étude de météorites et approche expérimentale

Les météorites sont des témoins de planétésimaux formés dans les cinq premiers millions d'années du système solaire. Leur grande diversité est liée à des évolutions thermiques différentes de leur corps parent, allant d'un simple métamorphisme à une différenciation complète manteau-noyau. Cette thèse s'intéresse à la mobilité relative silicate-métal dans les objets ayant connu un métamorphisme thermique ou la fusion partielle. Deux approches sont considérées : une naturaliste basée sur l'étude texturale d'échantillons naturels, l'autre expérimentale dans le but d'identifier et comprendre les processus physiques susceptibles de s'être produits. L'étude texturale sur les métaux et sulfures des chondrites ordinaires de type H, montre que, lorsque le métamorphisme augmente ces deux phases se séparent, changent de forme et croissent. Cette évolution se fait dans un ordre bien précis, cohérent avec les données de géochimie et les modèles thermiques, permettant de distinguer deux échantillons d'un même type pétrologique. On propose donc une nouvelle classification permettant de préciser l'actuelle. L'étude expérimentale de croissance cristalline a été menée sur des analogues synthétiques de météorites : le système forstérite+nickel±silicate fondu (Fo:Ni±SiF). Cette étude a été précédée par la mise en place d'un protocole de frittage par une technique peu connue en géosciences : le Spark Plasma Sintering. Les résultats montrent des mécanismes très différents entre Fo et Ni selon la proportion et la nature de chaque phase. Ces résultats sont en accord avec les observations faites sur objets naturels et permettent de préciser l'histoire thermique des planétésimaux.Meteorites are samples of small parent bodies accreted in the first five million years of the solar system. The diversity of meteorites can be related to different thermal evolutions of their parent bodies, from thermal metamorphism to complete mantle/core differentiation. This thesis focuses on the silicate-metal relative mobility during heating, in particular for solid systems which approach or exceed the onset of silicate melting. Two approaches are considered. Firstly, the textural evolutions in natural meteorites have been quantified. Secondly, laboratory experiments have been performed in order to identify and understand the processes which govern these textural changes. A textural study of metal and sulphide grains in H-chondrites shows that as metamorphism grade increases, phases separate, change in shape and grow. This evolution occurs progressively, making it possible to define textural criteria that vary continuously across petrographic boundaries. This evolution is consistent with independent geochemical data and thermal model. We propose a new scale of metamorphism allowing the subdivision of types 4 to 6. Grain growth experiments have been performed in synthetic analogues of meteorites: the system forsterite+nickel±melt silicate (Fo:Ni±M). The synthesis of starting materials required special care. A new sintering technique, seldom used in geosciences, has been developed: Spark Plasma Sintering. Experimental results show that mechanisms of grain growth of Fo and Ni are largely dependent of proportion and composition of each phase. Finally, results are in good agreement with natural observations and can be used to precise thermal history of planetesimals

Androgynous {\{101‾2{10\overline{1}2}}\} twin in zinc

Under ambient conditions, Zn is a hexagonal metal with a large $c/a$ ratio of 1.856. Plastic deformation is predominantly accommodated by basal $⟨a⟩$ slip and compression twins on the $\{$${10\overline{1}2}$$\}$ planes. Increasing hydrostatic pressure drastically reduces the $c/a$ ratio of Zn and, when a critical threshold of /=√3 at about 10 GPa is crossed, the $\{$${10\overline{1}2}$$\}$ twins are predicted to change from compressive to tensile in nature. What happens at the transition point, when $c/a=\sqrt{3}$, remains unknown. Here, we strain-cycle a textured polycrystalline sample of pure Zn at uniform hydrostatic pressures ranging between 2 and 17 GPa, over which the / ratio crosses the /=√3 compressive-tensile transition for $\{$${10\overline{1}2}$$\}$ twins. During deformation, the state of the sample is monitored in situ through x-ray diffraction to extract texture and internal strain evolution. By comparing the experimental results with the predictions of an elastoviscoplastic polycrystal simulation, we confirm the androgynous nature of $\{$${10\overline{1}2}$$\}$ twin response at low and high pressures. When $c/a=\sqrt{3}$, polycrystalline Zn does not display any evidence of twinning and its plastic behavior is controlled by mostly basal and pyramidal $⟨c+a⟩$ slip activity, with a very small contribution of prismatic $⟨a⟩$ slip. Evidence for the activity of other $\{$${10\overline{1}n}$$\}$ twinning modes, which have been suggested for Zn under high pressure, are not observed

Nickel isotope fractionation during metal-silicate differentiation of planetesimals: Experimental petrology and ab initio calculations

Metal-silicate fractionation of nickel isotopes has been experimentally quantified at 1623 K, with oxygen fugacities varying from 10−8.2 to 10−9.9 atm and for run durations from 0.5 to 1 h. Both kinetic and equilibrium fractionations have been studied. A wire loop set-up was used in which the metal reservoir is a pure nickel wire holding a silicate melt droplet of anorthite-diopside eutectic composition. During the course of the experiment, diffusion of nickel from the wire to the silicate occurred. The timescale to reach chemical equilibrium was fO2 dependent and decreased from 17 to 1 hour, as conditions became more reducing. The isotopic composition of each reservoir was determined by Multicollector-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (MC-ICPMS) after Ni purification. The isotopic composition was found to be constant in the metallic wire, which therefore behaved as an infinite reservoir. On the contrary, strong kinetic fractionation was observed in the silicate melt (δNi down to −0.98‰.amu−1 relative to the standard). Isotopic equilibrium was typically reached after 24 hours. For equilibrated samples at 1623 K, no metal-silicate fractionation was observed within uncertainty (2SD), with ΔNiMetal-Silicate = 0.02 ± 0.04‰.amu−1. Theoretical calculations of metal-silicate isotope fractionation at equilibrium were also performed on different metal-silicate systems. These calculations confirm (1) the absence of fractionation at high temperature and (2) a weak temperature dependence for Ni isotopic fractionation for the metal-olivine and metal-pyroxene pairs with the metal being slightly lighter isotopically. Our experimental data were finally compared with natural samples. Some mesosiderites (stony-iron meteorites) show a ΔNiMetal-Silicate close to experimental values at equilibrium, whereas others exhibit positive metal-silicate fractionation that could reflect kinetic processes. Conversely, pallasites display a strong negative metal-silicate fractionation. This most likely results from kinetic processes with Ni diffusion from the silicate to the metal phase due to a change of Ni partition coefficient during cooling. In this respect we note that in these pallasites, iron isotopes show metal-silicate fractionation that is opposite direction to Ni, supporting the idea of kinetic isotope fractionation, associated with Fe-Ni interdiffusion

A review of binderless polycrystalline diamonds: focus on the high-pressure-high-temperature sintering process

Nowadays, synthetic diamonds are easy to fabricate industrially, and a wide range of methods were developed during the last century. Among them, the high-pressure–high-temperature (HP–HT) process is the most used to prepare diamond compacts for cutting or drilling applications. However, these diamond compacts contain binder, limiting their mechanical and optical properties and their substantial uses. Binderless diamond compacts were synthesized more recently, and important developments were made to optimize the P–T conditions of sintering. Resulting sintered compacts had mechanical and optical properties at least equivalent to that of natural single crystal and higher than that of binder-containing sintered compacts, offering a huge potential market. However, pressure–temperature (P–T) conditions to sinter such bodies remain too high for an industrial transfer, making this the next challenge to be accomplished. This review gives an overview of natural diamond formation and the main experimental techniques that are used to synthesize and/or sinter diamond powders and compact objects. The focus of this review is the HP–HT process, especially for the synthesis and sintering of binderless diamonds. P–T conditions of the formation and exceptional properties of such objects are discussed and compared with classic binder-diamonds objects and with natural single-crystal diamonds. Finally, the question of an industrial transfer is asked and outlooks related to this are proposed

High Pressure (HP) in Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) Processes: Application to the Polycrystalline Diamond

High-Pressure (HP) technology allows new possibilities of processing by Spark Plasma Synthesis (SPS). This process is mainly involved in the sintering process and for bonding, growing and reaction. High-Pressure tools combined with SPS is applied for processing polycrystalline diamond without binder (binderless PCD) in this current work. Our described innovative Ultra High Pressure Spark Plasma Sintering (UHP-SPS) equipment shows the combination of our high-pressure apparatus (Belt-type) with conventional pulse electric current generator (Fuji). Our UHP-SPS equipment allows the processing up to 6 GPa, higher pressure than HP-SPS equipment, based on a conventional SPS equipment in which a non-graphite mold (metals, ceramics, composite and hybrid) with better mechanical properties (capable of 1 GPa) than graphite. The equipment of UHP-SPS and HP-SPS elements (pistons + die) conductivity of the non-graphite mold define a Hot-Pressing process. This study presents the results showing the ability of sintering diamond powder without additives at 4–5 GPa and 1300–1400 °C for duration between 5 and 30 min. Our described UHP-SPS innovative cell design allows the consolidation of diamond particles validated by the formation of grain boundaries on two different grain size powders, i.e., 0.75–1.25 μm and 8–12 μm. The phenomena explanation is proposed by comparison with the High Pressure High Temperature (HP-HT) (Belt, toroidal-Bridgman, multi-anvils (cubic)) process conventionally used for processing binderless polycrystalline diamond (binderless PCD). It is shown that using UHP-SPS, binderless diamond can be sintered at very unexpected P-T conditions, typically ~10 GPa and 500–1000 °C lower in typical HP-HT setups. This makes UHP-SPS a promising tool for the sintering of other high-pressure materials at non-equilibrium conditions and a potential industrial transfer with low environmental fingerprints could be considered

New model of chromite and magnesiochromite solubility in silicate melts

Chromite is a key magmatic mineral frequently used as petrogenetic indicator of physico-chemical conditions of mafic magma crystallization. In this work, magnesiochromite and chromite solubility in a natural basalt and an iron-free haplobasalt was investigated at 1440{\deg}C and atmospheric pressure under controlled CO-CO2 gas mixtures corresponding to the range two log units below to two log units above the fayalite-magnetite-quartz buffer. The source of chromium was either natural chromite or synthetic Cr2O3, the latter reacting with the basaltic liquids to form a magnesiochromite. The highest concentrations of Cr in haplobasaltic melts are found in equilibrium with magnesiochromite, depending on redox conditions. In detail, at low fO2, liquids have high Cr contents, but the variation of log [Cr, ppm] is not a linear function of log fO2. Using our new data and data from the literature a model for Cr concentrations at chromite/magnesiochromite saturation in silicate melts has been developed based upon a thermodynamic formalism. Our model may be used to assess the effect of melt composition on chromite and magnesiochromite solubility in silicate melts during peridotite melting and assimilation. At moderate and high oxygen fugacities, concentration levels of Cr at chromite saturation are higher for ultramafic than for felsic rocks. Our data imply that assimilation of magnesiochromite-bearing serpentinite lithosphere could result in high Cr contents in mafic melts, triggering massive crystallization of chromite, especially upon the system hydridization, cooling, oxidation and magma degassing. Our model may be applied for quantitative prediction of chromite crystallization and formation of the terrestrial mantle-crust transition zones and mantle represented by chromitites and dunites.Comment: 13 figures, revised version for Geochimica et Cosmochimica Act

Production of Early Diploid Males by European Colonies of the Invasive Hornet Vespa velutina nigrithorax

The invasive yellow-legged hornet Vespa velutina nigrithorax was accidentally introduced in Europe in the early 2000s. As is the case in colonies of other wasp and hornet species, V. velutina colonies are known to produce sexuals (males and new queens) at the end of the summer. We show that early-stage colonies in French populations frequently produce males well before the usual reproductive period. The vast majority of the males produced are diploid, which is consistent with the loss of genetic diversity previously reported in introduced populations in France. Since males do not participate in colony activities, the production of early diploid males at the expense of workers is expected to hamper colony growth and, ultimately, decrease the expansion of the species in its invasive range in Europe.SCOPUS: ar.jinfo:eu-repo/semantics/publishe

Time scales of small body differentiation

The petrologic and geochemical diversity of meteorites is a function of the bulk composition of their parent bodies, but also the result of how and when internal differentiation took place. Here we focus on this second aspect considering the two principal parameters involved: size and accretion time of the body. We discuss the interplay of the various time scales related to heating, cooling and drainage of silicate liquids. Based on two phase flow modelling in 1-D spherical geometry, we show that drainage time is proportional to two independent parameters: µ m /R 2 , the ratio of the matrix viscosity to the square of the body radius and µ f /a 2 , the ratio of the liquid viscosity to the square of the matrix grain size. We review the dependence of these properties on temperature, thermal history and degree of melting, demonstrating that they vary by several orders of magnitude during thermal evolution. These variations call into question the results of two phase flow modelling of small body differentiation that assume constant properties. For example, the idea that liquid migration was efficient enough to remove 26 Al heat sources from the interior of bodies and dampen their melting (e.g. Moskovitz and Gaidos, 2011; Neumann et al., 2012) relies on percolation rates of silicate liquids overestimated by six to eight orders of magnitude. In bodies accreted during the first few million years of solar-system history, we conclude that drainage cannot prevent the occurrence of a global magma ocean. These conditions seem ideal to explain the generation of the parent-bodies of iron meteorites. A map of the different evolutionary scenarios of small bodies as a function of size and accretion time is proposed