The history of occupational medicine

Čovjek provodi radeći veći dio svojeg svijesnog života, a to mu je prijeka potreba, kako za postignuće osobnog zadovoljstva, psihičke fizičke ravnoteže, tako i za biološko i socijalno održanje i unapređenje društvene zajednice. No rad nije uvijek samo pozitivan zdravstveni i socijalni faktor: on može biti i uzrok bolesti, ako je prenaporan, ako ne odgovara sposobnostima pojedinca, ako nije prekidan prikladnim odmorom ili ako se odvija u posebnim prilikama, koje ugrožavaju zdravlje (na pr. izloženost štetnim kemijskim i fizikalnim utjecajima). Negativni utjecaj nekih zvanja na zdravlje poetski je zbito i snažno opisan već prije 4000 godina u staroegipatskim papirusima: »Vidio sam metalca na radu uz otvor peći za taljenje. Prsti su mu poput kože krokodilove; smrdi gore od riblje mrijesti. Zidar obrađuje tvrdi kamen. Kad dovrši posao, ruke su mu izmorene, tijelo klonulo, tek u sumrak može da sjedne, a krsta su njegova i bedra kao prebijeni. U hranu mu je pomiješano blato i smeće, od gladi grize nokte. Brijač radi do kame noći. Ide ulicama tražeći posla. Napreže ruke samo da bi napunio želudac. Lađar, što prevozi robu do Delte, radi više nego što ruke mogu izdržati. Insekti ga ubijaju. Tkalac u radionici radi teže nego žena u kući. On čuči s koljenima pritisnutim uz trbuh i ne udiše svježi zrak. Podmićuje kruhom vratara, samo da bi mogao vidjeti danje svijetlo. Bojadisar smrdi, oči su mu umorne, ruke rade bez prestanka ... « (Pap. Sallier II i Pap. Anastasi VII).A review is given of the development of occupational medicine from the Neolithic age down to the present time. As occupational medicine, to a greater extent and much more directly than other branches of medical sciences, depends on the economic structure of society and its changes, special attention is paid to the economic background of each period, against which the characteristic forms of occupational medicine in the course of its development can be understood more easily. Thus for instance, emphasis is laid on the aristocratic character of ancient Greek medicine, on little understanding of occupational medicine on the part of classical medical writers, on the role of feudal relations and guilds in the Middle Ages etc. Only in the period of transition to capitalism in Italy and other European countries, and industrial revolutions in England, Germany and France was it possible for occupational medicine to develop as an independent scientific branch equal to any other medical activity. Primitive health protection of workers dates back to the Neolithic age. Statuettes made of clay with a mask over their faces from prehistoric excavations in Vinča near Belgrade, where the Neolithic man prepared mercury and cinnabar pigment by roasting cinnabar, clearly show that the workers of that time were protected from the inhalation of toxic mercury vapour, probably in the same way as described later by Plinius and Dioscurides. The analysis is given of the conditions in ancient Egypt as an illustration of working conditions in one of the organized ancient state. Very scarce data on occupational diseases as presented in the works of ancient physicians (Hippocrates, Celsus, Galen) and non-medical writers (Plato, Plautus, Martial, Juvenal, Vitruvius, Lucretius) are quoted extensively. Amongst mediaeval writers the significance of Arnaldus de Villanova is pointed out. He was the first to write a separate chap.er on the diseases of craftsmen. The contribution to the development of occupational medicine of the Renaissance authors Ellenbog, Paracelsus and Agricola is also set forth. The conditions in the mercury mine of ldria, the exploitation of which began in the early part of the 15th century, are described in more detail. The observations made by Paracelsus and Mattioli on the diseases of ldria miners deserve special attention. Bernardino Ramazzini\u27s work »De morbis artificum diatriba« (Modena 1700) is presented, as it is, as a landmark in the history of occupational medicine. After a short analysis of this work and its significance, the most important successors of Ramazzini\u27s work are mentioned, and a systematic review is given of the development of scientific investigations and legislation concerning the protection of workers·health in England, Germany, France, Italy, the United States, and Russia. Historical data on occupational lead, mercury, and phosphorus poisoning are presented at length, with an outline of the history of the acquirement of knowledge of occupational cancer, silicotuberculosis. caisson disease, miners\u27ancylostomiasis and X-ray injuries. After a brief description of the development of modern occupational health institutions, hospitals, associations and journals in Germany, England, the United States, France, Italy, Switzerland and USSR, a detailed presentation, based on the author\u27s own studies, is set forth of the historical development of occupational medicine in the Southern Slavic countries, with particular reference to the present position and progress of occupational medicine in Yugoslavia. The outstanding work of Željko Hahn (1876-1941) as a founder of scientific occupational health work in this country is specially emphasized. The development of international co-operation in the field of occupational medicine, and the significance and historical development of social insurance are also brought forward

The history of occupational medicine

Čovjek provodi radeći veći dio svojeg svijesnog života, a to mu je prijeka potreba, kako za postignuće osobnog zadovoljstva, psihičke fizičke ravnoteže, tako i za biološko i socijalno održanje i unapređenje društvene zajednice. No rad nije uvijek samo pozitivan zdravstveni i socijalni faktor: on može biti i uzrok bolesti, ako je prenaporan, ako ne odgovara sposobnostima pojedinca, ako nije prekidan prikladnim odmorom ili ako se odvija u posebnim prilikama, koje ugrožavaju zdravlje (na pr. izloženost štetnim kemijskim i fizikalnim utjecajima). Negativni utjecaj nekih zvanja na zdravlje poetski je zbito i snažno opisan već prije 4000 godina u staroegipatskim papirusima: »Vidio sam metalca na radu uz otvor peći za taljenje. Prsti su mu poput kože krokodilove; smrdi gore od riblje mrijesti. Zidar obrađuje tvrdi kamen. Kad dovrši posao, ruke su mu izmorene, tijelo klonulo, tek u sumrak može da sjedne, a krsta su njegova i bedra kao prebijeni. U hranu mu je pomiješano blato i smeće, od gladi grize nokte. Brijač radi do kame noći. Ide ulicama tražeći posla. Napreže ruke samo da bi napunio želudac. Lađar, što prevozi robu do Delte, radi više nego što ruke mogu izdržati. Insekti ga ubijaju. Tkalac u radionici radi teže nego žena u kući. On čuči s koljenima pritisnutim uz trbuh i ne udiše svježi zrak. Podmićuje kruhom vratara, samo da bi mogao vidjeti danje svijetlo. Bojadisar smrdi, oči su mu umorne, ruke rade bez prestanka ... « (Pap. Sallier II i Pap. Anastasi VII).A review is given of the development of occupational medicine from the Neolithic age down to the present time. As occupational medicine, to a greater extent and much more directly than other branches of medical sciences, depends on the economic structure of society and its changes, special attention is paid to the economic background of each period, against which the characteristic forms of occupational medicine in the course of its development can be understood more easily. Thus for instance, emphasis is laid on the aristocratic character of ancient Greek medicine, on little understanding of occupational medicine on the part of classical medical writers, on the role of feudal relations and guilds in the Middle Ages etc. Only in the period of transition to capitalism in Italy and other European countries, and industrial revolutions in England, Germany and France was it possible for occupational medicine to develop as an independent scientific branch equal to any other medical activity. Primitive health protection of workers dates back to the Neolithic age. Statuettes made of clay with a mask over their faces from prehistoric excavations in Vinča near Belgrade, where the Neolithic man prepared mercury and cinnabar pigment by roasting cinnabar, clearly show that the workers of that time were protected from the inhalation of toxic mercury vapour, probably in the same way as described later by Plinius and Dioscurides. The analysis is given of the conditions in ancient Egypt as an illustration of working conditions in one of the organized ancient state. Very scarce data on occupational diseases as presented in the works of ancient physicians (Hippocrates, Celsus, Galen) and non-medical writers (Plato, Plautus, Martial, Juvenal, Vitruvius, Lucretius) are quoted extensively. Amongst mediaeval writers the significance of Arnaldus de Villanova is pointed out. He was the first to write a separate chap.er on the diseases of craftsmen. The contribution to the development of occupational medicine of the Renaissance authors Ellenbog, Paracelsus and Agricola is also set forth. The conditions in the mercury mine of ldria, the exploitation of which began in the early part of the 15th century, are described in more detail. The observations made by Paracelsus and Mattioli on the diseases of ldria miners deserve special attention. Bernardino Ramazzini\u27s work »De morbis artificum diatriba« (Modena 1700) is presented, as it is, as a landmark in the history of occupational medicine. After a short analysis of this work and its significance, the most important successors of Ramazzini\u27s work are mentioned, and a systematic review is given of the development of scientific investigations and legislation concerning the protection of workers·health in England, Germany, France, Italy, the United States, and Russia. Historical data on occupational lead, mercury, and phosphorus poisoning are presented at length, with an outline of the history of the acquirement of knowledge of occupational cancer, silicotuberculosis. caisson disease, miners\u27ancylostomiasis and X-ray injuries. After a brief description of the development of modern occupational health institutions, hospitals, associations and journals in Germany, England, the United States, France, Italy, Switzerland and USSR, a detailed presentation, based on the author\u27s own studies, is set forth of the historical development of occupational medicine in the Southern Slavic countries, with particular reference to the present position and progress of occupational medicine in Yugoslavia. The outstanding work of Željko Hahn (1876-1941) as a founder of scientific occupational health work in this country is specially emphasized. The development of international co-operation in the field of occupational medicine, and the significance and historical development of social insurance are also brought forward

Mosquitos Culicidae como vetores emergentes de infecções Culicidae mosquitoes as emerging vectors of diseases

Apresenta-se sucinta revisão do relacionamento entre as chamadas infecções emergentes e o conceito de vetores emergentes. Estes são entendidos não apenas no que concerne aos que são descritos como tais, de forma nova, mas também aqueles com acentuadas mudanças de comportamento. Os fatores específicos que propiciam esse fenômeno identificam-se à poderosa influência humana sobre o ambiente. Assim, aquele construído pelo homem e conhecido como antrópico representa a função de pressão seletiva que induz as populações vetoras a se adaptarem às novas circunstâncias. Nelas inclui-se fatores ecológicos ambientais, ou demográficos, que incrementam o contato com os novos comportamentos vetoriais. Relata-se o encontro de criadouros anômalos de mosquitos Culicidae nas Américas. A interpretação desses encontros é feita visando à vigilância epidemiológica. O significado dessa emergência ou reemergência pode se traduzir no aparecimento de problemas epidemiológicos. Sugere-se que, em sendo assim, a vigilância epidemiológica deva ser feita em grau global.<br>A review is presented of the relationships between the so-called emerging infectious diseases and what may be defined as emerging vectors. These include not only those that have recently appeared but also those that present remarkable behavioral changes. Specific factors leading to that emergence can be associated with the powerful human influence on the environment. So the man-made, i.e. anthropic environment, exercises a selective pressure inducing vector populations to adapt to new circumstances. These may arise from ecological, environmental, or demographic factors that increase contact with the new vector. With this in mind, data on anomalous Culicidae breeding places in the Americas are reported. An interpretation of these findings is offered in the light of epidemiological surveillance. The question is whether vector emergence or re-emergence may constitute an epidemiological problem. Thus it is suggested that plane for all inclusive surveillance be prepared