The siting of UK Nuclear Power Installations

choosing a suitable site for a nuclear installation requires the consideration and balancin9 of several factors which are sometimes in tension with one another. One particularly interesting tension is a human and demographic one. On the one hand it is beneficial to place nuclear stations close to centres of population, to reduce transmission losses and other costs (including to the local environment) of transporting electricity over large distances from generator to consumer. On the other it is advantageous to place nuclear stations some distance away from such population centres in order to minimise the potential human consequences of a major release of radioactive materials in the (extremely unlikely) event of a major nuclear accident, not only in terms of direct exposure but also concerning the management of emergency planning, notably evacuation. This paper considers the emergence of policies aimed at managing this tension in the UK. In the first phase of nuclear development (roughly speaking 1945 to 1965) there was a highly cautious attitude, with installations being placed in remote rural locations with verylow population density. The second phase (1965 to 1985) saw a more relaxed approach allowin9 Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactor construction closer to population centres (in 'semi-urban' locations, notably at Hartlepool and Heysham). In the third phase (1985 to 2005) there was very little new nuclear development, Sizewell B (the first and so far only pressurised water power reactor in the UK) being co-located with an early Magnox station on the rural Suffolk coast. However, there was considerable effort expended on trying to find a site for disposal of radioactive wastes. Renewed interest in nuclear new build grew from 2005 onwards and led to a number of sites being identified for new reactors before 2025; all having previously hosted nuclear stations and including the semi-urban locations of the 1960s and 1970s. Finally, some speculative comments are made as to what a 'fifth phase' starting in 2025 might look like

Marketing Renewable Energy in the United Kingdom

This chapter focuses on the renewable energy market in the UK. First we discuss the impact of privatization, then show what preconditions might be important. The main conclusion drawn from the analysis is that in the UK, as well as in other countries, new policy frameworks need to guide the transition from an energy system designed to achieve short-term efficiencies through market operation to a long-term approach that would embrace new uncertainties. Both market interests and environmental protection need to be secured in order to guarantee the levels of investment needed in the UK’s renewable energy market

Functions of the osteocyte network in the regulation of bone mass

Osteocytes establish an extensive intracellular and extracellular communication system via gap-junction-coupled cell processes and canaliculi throughout bone and the communication system is extended to osteoblasts on the bone surface. The osteocyte network is an ideal mechanosensory system and suitable for mechanotransduction. However, the overall function of the osteocyte network remains to be clarified, since bone resorption is enhanced by osteocyte apoptosis, which is followed by a process of secondary necrosis attributable to the lack of scavengers. The enhanced bone resorption is caused by the release of intracellular content, including immunostimulatory molecules that activate osteoclastogenesis through the canaliculi. Therefore, a mouse model is required in which the osteocyte network is disrupted but in which no bone resorption is induced, in order to evaluate the overall functions of the osteocyte network. One such model is the BCL2 transgenic mouse, in which the osteocyte network, including both intracellular and extracellular networks, is disrupted. Another model is the osteocyte-specific Gja1 knockout mouse, in which intercellular communication through gap junctions is impaired but the canalicular system is intact. Combining the findings from these mouse models with previous histological observations showing the inverse linkage between osteocyte density and bone formation, we conclude that the osteocyte network enhances bone resorption and inhibits bone formation under physiological conditions. Further, studies with BCL2 transgenic mice show that these osteocyte functions are augmented in the unloaded condition. In this condition, Rankl upregulation in osteoblasts and Sost upregulation in osteocytes are, at least in part, responsible for enhanced bone resorption and suppressed bone formation, respectively

The European and global potential of carbon dioxide sequestration in tackling climate change

Although, it has received relatively little attention as a potential method of combating climate change in comparison to energy reduction measures and development of carbon-free energy technologies, sequestration of carbon dioxide in geologic or biospheric sinks has enormous potential. This paper reviews the potential for sequestration using geological and ocean storage as a means of reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Considerable quantities of carbon dioxide separated from natural gas deposits and from hydrogen production from steam reforming of methane are already used in enhanced oil recovery and in extraction of coalbed methane, the carbon dioxide remaining sequestered at the end of the process. A number of barriers lie in the way of its implementation on a large scale. There are concerns about possible environmental effects of large-scale injection of carbon dioxide especially into the oceans. Available technologies, especially of separating and capturing the carbon dioxide from waste stream, have high costs at present, perhaps representing an additional 40–100% onto the costs of generating electricity. In most of the world there are no mechanisms to encourage firms to consider sequestration. Considerable R&D is required to bring down the costs of the process, to elucidate the environmental effects of storage and to ensure that carbon dioxide will not escape from stores in unacceptably short timescales. However, the potential of sequestration should not be underestimated as a contribution to global climate change mitigation measures