Extraversion moderates the relationship between social media use and depression

Background: There is evidence that extraversion and associated frequent personal and digital social contacts are associated with mental health, reflected in reduced risk for anxiety or depression. However, excessive social media use (SMU) has been related to a decrease of mental health. We test how extraversion moderates the effect of SMU on anxiety and depression in times of social distancing. Methods: Data were collected with an app-based survey combined with passive sensing of social media usage time. We analyzed SMU (objective average duration of communication app usage) and cross-sectional questionnaire data from 486 adults (mean age = 42.42). Using multiple regression models, we tested how SMU, extraversion and their interaction relate to individual depression and anxiety scores. Results: Depression scores were associated with a higher SMU and lower extraversion. There was a significant positive relationship between SMU and extraversion that predicted higher depression scores. Limitations: In the present sample, there is a recruitment bias since only data from smartphones running iOS were included. Future research should also take a closer look at the purpose behind SMU. Conclusions: We conclude that extraversion might be a protective factor for depression which can turn into a harmful one if it is related to higher SMU. Thus, the interplay between SMU and extraversion needs to be considered when predicting individual differences in mental health.Peer Reviewe

Vom Labor ins Leben: Die Erforschung der Rolle von sozialem Kontakt für Angst und damit verbundene autonome Reaktionen

Social contact is an integral part of daily life. Its health-enhancing effects include reduced negative affective experiences of fear and anxiety, a phenomenon called social buffering. This dissertation studied different forms of social contact and their anxiety-buffering effects with diverse methodologies. The laboratory-based first study investigated minimal social contact in the context of pain relief learning. Results showed that the observed decreased autonomic and increased subjective fear responses following pain relief learning were independent of social influence. The minimalistic and controlled social setting may have prevented social buffering. Study 2 targeted social buffering in daily life using Ecological Momentary Assessment. We repeatedly assessed individuals’ state anxiety, related cardiovascular responses, and aspects of social interactions with smartphones and portable sensors on five days. Analyses of over 1,500 social contacts revealed gender-specific effects, e.g., heart rate-reducing effects of familiarity in women, but not men. Study 3 examined anxiety, loneliness, and related social factors in the absence of social contact due to social distancing. We constructed and validated a scale measuring state and trait loneliness and isolation, and analysed its link to mental health. Results include a social buffering-like relation of lower anxiety with more trait sociability and sense of belonging. In sum, the studies showed no fear reduction by minimal social contact, but buffering effects relating to social and personal factors in more complex social situations. Anxiety responses during daily social contacts were lower with more familiar or opposite-gender interaction partners. During limited social contact, lower anxiety related to inter-individual differences in sociability, social belonging, and loneliness. By taking research from lab to life, this dissertation underlined the diverse nature of social contact and its relevance to mental health.Sozialer Kontakt ist ein wesentlicher Teil des Alltags. Zu seinen Effekten gehört die Minderung negativer affektiver Erfahrungen von Angst und Furcht („Social Buffering“). Diese Dissertation untersucht verschiedene Formen sozialen Kontakts und ihre angstmindernde Wirkung mit diversen Methoden. Studie 1 untersuchte minimalen sozialen Kontakt im Kontext von Pain Relief Learning im Labor. Die verringerten autonomen und erhöhten subjektiven Furchtreaktionen nach dem Pain Relief Learning waren unabhängig vom sozialen Einfluss. Das minimalistische und kontrollierte soziale Setting könnte Social Buffering verhindert haben. Studie 2 erfasste Social Buffering im Alltag mit Ecological Momentary Assessment. An fünf Tagen wurden wiederholt State Angst und kardiovaskuläre Reaktionen der ProbandInnen sowie Merkmale ihrer sozialen Interaktionen mit Smartphones und tragbaren Sensoren gemessen. Die Analyse der über 1500 sozialen Kontakte ergab geschlechtsspezifische Effekte, z. B. eine herzratenmindernde Wirkung von Vertrautheit bei Frauen, aber nicht bei Männern. Studie 3 untersuchte Angst, Einsamkeit und weitere soziale Faktoren bei abwesendem sozialen Kontakt durch Social Distancing. Wir konstruierten und validierten eine Skala zur Messung von State- und Trait-Einsamkeit und Isolation und prüften ihren Zusammenhang mit psychischer Gesundheit. Weniger Angst ging mit mehr Trait-Geselligkeit und Zugehörigkeitsgefühl einher. Somit zeigte sich keine Furchtminderung bei minimalem sozialen Kontakt, aber Social Buffering in komplexeren sozialen Situationen bedingt durch soziale und persönliche Faktoren. Angstreaktionen waren in Alltagsinteraktionen mit vertrauteren oder gegengeschlechtlichen Personen geringer. Bei begrenztem sozialen Kontakt ging geringere Angst mit Unterschieden in Geselligkeit, sozialer Zugehörigkeit und Einsamkeit einher. Durch Forschung in Labor und Leben unterstreicht diese Dissertation die Vielfältigkeit sozialer Kontakte und ihre Relevanz für psychische Gesundheit

The skin conductance response indicating pain relief is independent of self or social influence on pain

Pain relief is defined as the ease of pain and is thus highly relevant for clinical applications and everyday life. Given that pain relief is based on the cessation of an aversive pain experience, it is reasonable to assume that pain relief learning would also be shaped by factors that alter subjective and physiological pain responses, such as social presence or a feeling of control. To date, it remains unclear whether and how factors that shape autonomic pain responses might affect pain relief learning. Here, we investigated how pain relief learning is shaped by two important factors known to modulate pain responses, i.e. social influence and controllability of pain. Skin conductance responses (SCRs) were recorded while participants learned to associate a formerly neutral stimulus with pain relief under three different pain conditions. In the social-influence condition (N = 34), the pain stimulation could be influenced by another person’s decisions. In the self-influence condition (N = 31), the participants themselves could influence the pain stimulation. Finally, in the no-influence condition (N = 32), pain stimulation was simply delivered without any influence. According to our results, the SCRs elicited by the stimulus that was associated with pain relief were significantly smaller compared to the SCRs elicited by a neutral control stimulus, indicating pain relief learning. However, there was no significant difference in the pain relief learning effect across the groups. These results suggest that physiological pain relief learning in humans is not significantly influenced by social influence and pain controllability

Construction and validation of a scale to measure loneliness and isolation during social distancing and its effect on mental health

A variety of factors contribute to the degree to which a person feels lonely and socially isolated. These factors may be particularly relevant in contexts requiring social distancing, e.g., during the COVID-19 pandemic or in states of immunodeficiency. We present the Loneliness and Isolation during Social Distancing (LISD) Scale. Extending existing measures, the LISD scale measures both state and trait aspects of loneliness and isolation, including indicators of social connectedness and support. In addition, it reliably predicts individual differences in anxiety and depression. Data were collected online from two independent samples in a social distancing context (the COVID-19 pandemic). Factorial validation was based on exploratory factor analysis (EFA; Sample 1, N = 244) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; Sample 2, N = 304). Multiple regression analyses were used to assess how the LISD scale predicts state anxiety and depression. The LISD scale showed satisfactory fit in both samples. Its two state factors indicate being lonely and isolated as well as connected and supported, while its three trait factors reflect general loneliness and isolation, sociability and sense of belonging, and social closeness and support. Our results imply strong predictive power of the LISD scale for state anxiety and depression, explaining 33 and 51% of variance, respectively. Anxiety and depression scores were particularly predicted by low dispositional sociability and sense of belonging and by currently being more lonely and isolated. In turn, being lonely and isolated was related to being less connected and supported (state) as well as having lower social closeness and support in general (trait). We provide a novel scale which distinguishes between acute and general dimensions of loneliness and social isolation while also predicting mental health. The LISD scale could be a valuable and economic addition to the assessment of mental health factors impacted by social distancing

Social cognitive factors outweigh negative emotionality in predicting COVID-19 related safety behaviors

Emotion-motivation models propose that behaviors, including health behaviors, should be predicted by the same variables that also predict negative affect since emotional reactions should induce a motivation to avoid threatening situations. In contrast, social cognitive models propose that safety behaviors are predicted by a different set of variables that mainly reflect cognitive and socio-structural aspects. Here, we directly tested these opposing hypotheses in young adults (N = 4134) in the context of COVID-19-related safety behaviors to prevent infections. In each participant, we collected measures of negative affect as well as cognitive and socio-structural variables during the lockdown in the first infection wave in Germany. We found a negative effect of the pandemic on emotional responses. However, this was not the main predictor for young adults’ willingness to comply with COVID-19-related safety measures. Instead, individual differences in compliance were mainly predicted by cognitive and socio-structural variables. These results were confirmed in an independent data set. This study shows that individuals scoring high on negative affect during the pandemic are not necessarily more likely to comply with safety regulations. Instead, political measures should focus on cognitive interventions and the societal relevance of the health issue. These findings provide important insights into the basis of health-related concerns and feelings as well as behavioral adaptations

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on stress and other psychological factors in pregnant women giving birth during the first wave of the pandemic

Background The onset of mental illness such as depression and anxiety disorders in pregnancy and postpartum period is common. The coronavirus induced disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and the resulting public policy responses represent an exceptional situation worldwide and there are hints for adverse psychosocial impact, hence, the study of psychological effects of the pandemic in women during hospitalization for delivery and in the postpartum period is highly relevant. Methods Patients who gave birth during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany (March to June 2020) at the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Würzburg, Germany, were recruited at hospital admission for delivery. Biosamples were collected for analysis of SARS-CoV-2 infection and various stress hormones and interleukin-6 (IL-6). In addition to sociodemographic and medical obstetric data, survey questionnaires in relation to concerns about and fear of COVID-19, depression, stress, anxiety, loneliness, maternal self-efficacy and the mother–child bonding were administered at T1 (delivery stay) and T2 (3–6 months postpartum). Results In total, all 94 recruited patients had a moderate concern of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) at T1 with a significant rise at T2. This concern correlated with low to low-medium general psychosocial stress levels and stress symptoms, and the women showed a significant increase of active coping from T1 to T2. Anxiety levels were low and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale showed a medium score of 5 with a significant (T1), but only week correlation with the concerns about SARS-CoV-2. In contrast to the overall good maternal bonding without correlation to SARS-CoV-2 concern, the maternal self-efficiency correlated negatively with the obstetric impairment caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Conclusion Obstetric patients` concerns regarding SARS-CoV-2 and the accompanying pandemic increased during the course of the pandemic correlating positively with stress and depression. Of note is the increase in active coping over time and the overall good mother–child-bonding. Maternal self-efficacy was affected in part by the restrictions of the pandemic