Structural design of pavements incorporating foamed bitumen mixtures

This paper presents a rational structural design methodology termed the ‘cumulative damage approach’ for road, port and airport pavements incorporating cold bituminous mixtures with foamed bitumen. This has been developed along with a laboratory test, the uniaxial indirect tensile test, to evaluate the fatigue characteristics of these mixtures. The test was developed with a view to addressing the limitations of conventional fatigue tests for foamed bitumen mixtures. The new design approach takes account of the actual stiffness evolution of the mixtures obtained from the fatigue test. It is compared with a traditional approach for conventional flexible pavements, which is based on pavement life as a function of computed tensile strain in the material and interpretation of fatigue data in a conventional way. The results show that the traditional design approach yields conservative outcomes for pavements with foamed bitumen mixtures if the same transfer function or shift factor used for hot mix asphalt is applied. The results also show that if all factors other than induced load influence are the same, the shift factor for foamed bitumen mixtures could be 25–35% higher than for hot mix asphalt

Effect of foaming technique and mixing temperature on the rheological characteristics of fine RAP-foamed bitumen mixtures

This paper evaluates and compares the differences in the rheological characteristics of the fine aggregate matrix (FAM) portion of plant produced Foamed Bitumen Mixtures (FBMs) by means of a mechanical foaming process, and by the incorporation of zeolites in combination with Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) material. This evaluation explores, for the first time, the impact of plant production variations for half-warm, warm and hot processes (i.e. mixing temperatures around 90°C, 120°C and 160°C, respectively) on their rheological response. A fine Virgin-HMA, a fine HMA-RAP – no foaming technique -, and a 100% fine RAP mixture were also produced for comparison purposes. Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) tests were conducted on all evaluated FAM mixtures to determine their linear viscoelastic properties. Results indicate that the rheological response of the fine RAP-FBMs is influenced primarily by the contribution of the RAP binder in the total bitumen blend, and ageing of the fine RAP material, which were a function of the foaming technology and the production temperature of the materials

Development of compression pull-off test (CPOT) to assess bond strength of bitumen

The quantification of moisture susceptibility has been a major concern for researchers as it adversely affects the performance of asphalt pavements. Several methods have been developed to assess bond strength using asphalt mixtures in loose and compacted state. These tests lack in their ability to study fundamental properties that affect the bond between bitumen and aggregate. In this context, more fundamental techniques have been developed such as pull-off stub tests and direct tension tests. The first group only measures the maximum pull-off strength and second group has problems related to use of consistent binder film thickness and operational difficulties in test itself.This paper presents a new test to evaluate bond strength, in an attempt, to solve problems associated with traditional direct tension tests. The aim is achieved through a review of existing techniques, development of a gap assembly, fabrication of direct tension test moulds, development of Compression Pull-Off Test (CPOT) and evaluation of its results. The key parameters for bitumen and mastics were evaluated. The CPOT shows promising results for use of this technique to study cohesive as well as adhesive bond strength of binder

Rheological characteristics of polymer modified and aged bitumens

The demands on asphalt pavements, as a result of the growth in traffic volumes, traffic loads and tyre contact pressures, has resulted in an increased interest in the use of modified bitumens, particularly over the last ten years. Of the various types of modified and specialised binders that are available worldwide, polymer modified bitumens (PMB’s) have tended to be the most popular. Polymer modification significantly alters the rheological characteristics of the binder, thereby requiring the use of fundamental rheological testing methods rather than empirical methods, to provide an indication of the performance of the binder and subsequently the asphalt mixture. This thesis is concerned with the use of a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) to quantify the fundamental rheological characteristics of various unaged and aged PMB’s. The parallel plate testing methodology used with the Bohlin Model DSR50 Dynamic Shear Rheometer requires accurate temperature control by means of a circulating fluid bath, a combination of different plate diameters and sample geometries, and the use of small strains in order to measure the linear viscoelastic rheological characteristics of a bitumen specimen. Conventional and dynamic shear rheometry testing of various penetration grade bitumens, semi-crystalline ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) PMB’s and thermoplastic rubber styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) PMB’s have indicated that the rheological characteristics differ considerably between the unmodified and polymer modified bitumens as well as between the plastomeric EVA and elastomeric SBS PMB’s. The DSR dynamic rheological parameters of complex modulus and phase angle indicate that the modification mechanism of EVA PMB’s consists of the crystallisation of rigid three dimensional networks within the bitumen. These rigid crystalline structures increase the stiffness and elastic component of the viscoelastic balance of the PMB up to the temperature associated with the melting of the copolymer. The modification mechanism of SBS PMB’s consists of the establishment of a highly elastic network within the bitumen that increases the elasticity and stiffness, particularly at high temperatures. The higher melting temperature of the SBS copolymer allows the rheological character of the SBS PMB to extend to temperatures greater than those found for EVA PMB’s. DSR measurements of the rheological changes associated with laboratory ageing of EVA PMB’s indicate that the ageing mechanism is linked to a chemical change of the copolymer due to fusion of the crystallites. This chemical change leads to a degradation of the polymer and, therefore, a transition of the rheological behaviour towards that of an unmodified bitumen. The rheological changes associated with the ageing of SBS PMB’s is linked to a breakdown of the molecular structure of the SBS copolymer to form a lower molecular weight polymer substructure. This results in an increased viscous behaviour after ageing compared to the increased elastic behaviour found for unmodified bitumens

Evaluation of moisture sorption and diffusion characteristics of asphalt mastics using manual and automated gravimetric sorption techniques

One of the most important factors influencing the durability of asphalt mixtures is moisture-induced damage resulting from the presence and the transport of moisture in pavements. Moisture-induced damage is an extremely complicated phenomenon that is not completely understood but believed to be governed by the interaction of moisture with asphalt mix components (mastic and aggregates). The objective of this study was, therefore, to characterize the sorption and diffusion characteristics of asphalt mastic using gravimetric vapor sorption techniques. Moisture transport, in the hygroscopic region, in asphalt mastics was studied using both static and dynamic gravimetric vapor sorption techniques to determine equilibrium moisture uptake and diffusion coefficients as a function of aggregate and filler types. For the 25-mm diameter thin asphalt mastic films and the testing conditions (23°C and 85% relative humidity) considered, the kinetics of moisture uptake obtained were characteristic of Fickian diffusion with a concentration-dependent diffusion coefficient. Equilibrium moisture uptake and diffusion coefficient estimated from the static measurements were comparable and of the same order of magnitude as those from dynamic sorption techniques. Both measurement techniques ranked the mixes similarly, which suggest either method could be used to characterize moisture transport in asphalt mastics. Equilibrium moisture uptake was relatively higher in mixtures containing granite aggregates compared with limestone aggregate. In contrast, the diffusion coefficient of limestone aggregate mastics was higher than granite. Thus, an inversely proportional relationship exists between moisture uptake and diffusivity of the asphalt mastics studied. The results suggest moisture transport is a function of aggregate type and that both equilibrium moisture uptake and diffusion coefficient are useful in studying moisture susceptibility in asphalt mixtures. The effect of mineral filler type on diffusion coefficient was minimal in the mastics containing granite aggregate but relatively high in mastic samples containing limestone aggregates. Diffusion coefficient was found to increase with sample thickness, which was unexpected because diffusion coefficient (in an isotropic material) is considered an intrinsic property that is independent of sample size. The results suggested anisotropic diffusivity can occur in asphalt mastics and could be attributed to factors, including mineralogy, microstructure, air voids, and the tendency of the aggregates to settle at the bottom of asphalt mastic with time. In addition to characterizing moisture transport in asphalt mastics, the results presented in this paper will be useful as inputs for numerical simulation of moisture damage in asphalt mixtures

New simplified approach for obtaining a reliable plateau value in fatigue analysis of bituminous materials

The Plateau Value (PV) based on the Ratio of Dissipated Energy Change (RDEC) approach has been proven to provide a unique relationship with the fatigue life, Nf, independent of loading mode, temperature and frequency. In this paper, a new simplified approach is proposed to compute the unique energy parameter PV. The results of this study show that applying the proposed method allows a unique fatigue power law to be produced and eliminates the ambiguity and variability in calculating PV. However, the study also shows that the PV-Nf fatigue curves for bituminous materials are dependent on material type which is contradictory to other studies dealing with PV. The study also highlights the importance of appropriately identifying the fatigue failure point prior to commencing any fatigue analysis

Rheological characteristics of polymer modified and aged bitumens

The demands on asphalt pavements, as a result of the growth in traffic volumes, traffic loads and tyre contact pressures, has resulted in an increased interest in the use of modified bitumens, particularly over the last ten years. Of the various types of modified and specialised binders that are available worldwide, polymer modified bitumens (PMB’s) have tended to be the most popular. Polymer modification significantly alters the rheological characteristics of the binder, thereby requiring the use of fundamental rheological testing methods rather than empirical methods, to provide an indication of the performance of the binder and subsequently the asphalt mixture. This thesis is concerned with the use of a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) to quantify the fundamental rheological characteristics of various unaged and aged PMB’s. The parallel plate testing methodology used with the Bohlin Model DSR50 Dynamic Shear Rheometer requires accurate temperature control by means of a circulating fluid bath, a combination of different plate diameters and sample geometries, and the use of small strains in order to measure the linear viscoelastic rheological characteristics of a bitumen specimen. Conventional and dynamic shear rheometry testing of various penetration grade bitumens, semi-crystalline ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) PMB’s and thermoplastic rubber styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) PMB’s have indicated that the rheological characteristics differ considerably between the unmodified and polymer modified bitumens as well as between the plastomeric EVA and elastomeric SBS PMB’s. The DSR dynamic rheological parameters of complex modulus and phase angle indicate that the modification mechanism of EVA PMB’s consists of the crystallisation of rigid three dimensional networks within the bitumen. These rigid crystalline structures increase the stiffness and elastic component of the viscoelastic balance of the PMB up to the temperature associated with the melting of the copolymer. The modification mechanism of SBS PMB’s consists of the establishment of a highly elastic network within the bitumen that increases the elasticity and stiffness, particularly at high temperatures. The higher melting temperature of the SBS copolymer allows the rheological character of the SBS PMB to extend to temperatures greater than those found for EVA PMB’s. DSR measurements of the rheological changes associated with laboratory ageing of EVA PMB’s indicate that the ageing mechanism is linked to a chemical change of the copolymer due to fusion of the crystallites. This chemical change leads to a degradation of the polymer and, therefore, a transition of the rheological behaviour towards that of an unmodified bitumen. The rheological changes associated with the ageing of SBS PMB’s is linked to a breakdown of the molecular structure of the SBS copolymer to form a lower molecular weight polymer substructure. This results in an increased viscous behaviour after ageing compared to the increased elastic behaviour found for unmodified bitumens

Manufacturing Terminal and Field Bitumen-Tyre Rubber Blends: The Importance of Processing Conditions

No-agitation Tyre Rubber Modified Bitumens (TR-MBs), also known as "terminal blends" or "field-blends", are quite new technologies leading to bituminous binders similar to polymer modified bitumens in terms of both rheology and needed efforts during paving operations. Their manufacturing, as well as other TR-MBs, is strongly dependent on the selected processing variables as well as on the chosen materials. This study presents a literature review to provide an overview of the TR-MB technologies which focuses on the influence of processing conditions on the modification process, storage stability and overall properties of the final bitumen - tyre rubber blends. (C) 2012 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of SIIV2012 Scientific Committe

Physical and rheological characterization of carbonated bitumen for paving applications

In the paving industry, current attempts aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions have focused on the development of technologies that decrease bitumen viscosity so that asphalt mixtures can be produced at temperatures that are lower than conventional mixing temperature for hot-mix asphalt. This study focuses on the feasibility of producing new lower energy asphalt mixtures using CO2-modified bitumen. Gravimetric sorption techniques were used to establish the kinetics of CO2 diffusion in bitumen at multiple pressures. The rheological properties of the carbonated bitumen were characterized at multiple temperatures and loading frequencies using a dynamic shear rheometer.The results showed that CO2, at concentrations of up to about 0.3% w/w, caused significant (up to 3-folds) reduction in bitumen viscosity. A 10-fold increase in equilibrium CO2 uptake was observed when binders were conditioned in CO2 at 300 psi versus at 40 psi. The carbonated bitumen developed in this study has potential application in the production of lower energy asphalt mixtures. The work presents a novel application of CO2 at subcritical conditions, to reducing bitumen viscosity so that asphalt can be produced at lower temperature for paving applications. The work represents the first time such as attempt has been in the asphalt paving industry