Method of reproducibly predamaging float glass as a basis to determine the bending strength

Strength measurements on commercial float glass result in a wide range of randomly distributed values. Such a random statistical distribution leads, if extrapolated to low fracture probabilities, to unrealistically low strength values which cannot be taken as a basis for design. The following paper introduces a method of reproducibly predamaging float glass. The glass surfaces which are under tensile stress are predamaged to an extent which is not achieved in normal practical applications. This predamaging reduces the bending strength and narrows the random range of measured values. The strength tests with the following statistical evaluation of the treated float glass specimens will more easily come up to the fracture behaviour of glass in practical use and can thus be adopted as a basis for the design of float glass according to a probabilistic approach

II. Le Sud-Ouest de l’Allemagne

Urban dwellings in Gothic Bavaria, by Konrad Bedal Most Bavarian cities took on their present form during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. This is also the case of the houses, both the interior and exterior. The main changes include 1) the passage from rambling constructions to larger, more compact buildings ; 2) the replacement of one-room dwellings, either post and beam or masonry structures, by large multi-roomed half-timbered or stonework constructions ; 3) the general adoption of the Stube (a combined living and eating room), with wooden walls and ceiling, as the main room, situated usually on the first floor. If the profile of the old cities is characterised by tightly packed houses with steep roofs, the South-east also has gently pitched shake roofs. From the thirteenth century on, buildings may be oriented either with the gable or the gutter wall facing the street ; the latter predominate in the South, former in the North. Regensburg has a special place in Bavaria, preserving that largest number of residences and private towers north of the Alps. Two major zones are distinguishable in Bavaria as of the fourteenth century. Masonry construction, principally brick, prevails in the South and East (Upper and Lower Bavaria), whereas timber-frame construction spreads through the North and West (Franconia and Swabia) after 1250. The development and characteristics of wood-frame construction in Franconia is well known from the nearly 2000 preserved medieval buildings. The oldest are storied post and beam dwellings measuring 5 x 10 meters to 12 x 30 meters. Short post construction in upper stories is known from 1300, but only becomes common in Franconia between 1400 and 1500, although one finds corbelling on gables and gutter walls, even in the oldest buildings. Softwood is most common, but oak is also used for the exterior facing. The infilling is cob, ashlar or brick, or even plaster. Many city dwellings have a rear gallery, usually on the first floor, that gives access to the latrines, an amenity that finds favour in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Narrow wings are often added at the rear of the houses ; they border a narrow courtyard which is closed at the end by a fourth structure that is used as a barn or complementary dwelling. The ground floor serves as a stable, whereas the upper storey has sleeping rooms and Stuben. The interior courts are characteristic features of the homes of the wealthy in southern Germany. Although the majority of the courts with a regular layout date from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, precursors cans be found in the fifteenth. Galleries are often in wood, but some masonry arcades rest on columns, especially south of the Danube and constitute the highpoint of domestic urban construction in Bavaria.South-western urban dwellings in the Gothic period, by Michael Goer South-western Germany is one of the most urbanised parts of the country. At the end of the Middle Ages, there were approximately three hundred cities. Masonry houses appeared toward 1200 and the fabric of the cities was fixed by 1300. The development of the habitats was not uniform and each city forged its own identity between 1200 and 1300. Thus, stone construction in Fribourg during the twelfth century is an isolated case. Apart from a few exceptions, there are no houses entirely in store elsewhere (such as the three-storied ones in Schwäbisch Gmünd), or houses with masonry ground floors and half-timber upper storeys before the thirteenth century. The corpus of preserved half-timbered houses covers the whole period. In present-day Bade-Württemberg, fourteen buildings have been dated dendrochronologically between 1250 and 1300, of which eight are in Esslingen. The most ancient houses in half-timber exhibit a high degree of technical skill and diversification, indicating that, at the beginning of the Gothic period, the technique already has a long history. This type of structure is a post house, with or without a pitched roof, and short piles in the upper storey. There are two kinds of structures, post and beam constructions, supporting or not the ridge beam, and short piles construction, that means with platformframing.Goer Michael. II. Le Sud-Ouest de l’Allemagne. In: Bulletin Monumental, tome 167, n°3, année 2009. L'Allemagne gothique. I. Châteaux et maisons. pp. 243-250

Grundzüge der vor- und frühindustriellen Entwicklung im bergisch-märkischen Raum zwischen 17. und 19. Jahrhundert

Gorißen S. Grundzüge der vor- und frühindustriellen Entwicklung im bergisch-märkischen Raum zwischen 17. und 19. Jahrhundert. In: Goer M, Arbeitskreis für Hausforschung, eds. Wuppertal, das Bergische Land und der Hausbau im 19. Jahrhundert. Jahrbuch für Hausforschung. Vol 55. Marburg: Jonas Verlag; 2014: 95-105