Modified cyclodextrins as novel non-viral vectors for neuronal siRNA delivery: focus on Huntington’s disease

Huntington’s Disease (HD) is a rare autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease caused by the expression of a mutant Huntingtin (muHTT) protein. Therefore, preventing the expression of muHTT by harnessing the specificity of the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway is a key research avenue for developing novel therapies for HD. However, the biggest caveat in the RNAi approach is the delivery of short interfering RNA (siRNAs) to neurons, which are notoriously difficult to transfect. Indeed, despite the great advances in the field of nanotechnology, there remains a great need to develop more effective and less toxic carriers for siRNA delivery to the Central Nervous System (CNS). Thus, the aim of this thesis was to investigate the utility of modified amphiphilic β-cyclodextrins (CDs), oligosaccharide-based molecules, as non-viral vectors for siRNA delivery for HD. Modified CDs were able to bind and complex siRNAs forming nanoparticles capable of delivering siRNAs to ST14A-HTT120Q cells and to human HD fibroblasts, and reducing the expression of the HTT gene in these in vitro models of HD. Moreover, direct administration of CD.siRNA nanoparticles into the R6/2 mouse brain resulted in significant HTT gene expression knockdown and selective alleviation of rotarod motor deficits in this mouse model of HD. In contrast to widely used transfection reagents, CD.siRNA nanoparticles only induced limited cytotoxic and neuroinflammatory responses in multiple brain-derived cell-lines, and also in vivo after single direct injections into the mouse brain. Alternatively, we have also described a PEGylation-based formulation approach to further stabilise CD.siRNA nanoparticles and progress towards a systemic delivery nanosystem. Resulting PEGylated CD.siRNA nanoparticles showed increased stability in physiological saltconditions and, to some extent, reduced protein-induced aggregation. Taken together, the work outlined in this thesis identifies modified CDs as effective, safe and versatile siRNA delivery systems that hold great potential for the treatment of CNS disorders, such as HD

Adenoviral delivery of angiotensin-(1-7) or angiotensin-(1-9) inhibits cardiomyocyte hypertrophy via the mas or angiotensin Type 2 receptor

The counter-regulatory axis of the renin angiotensin system peptide angiotensin-(1-7) [Ang-(1-7)] has been identified as a potential therapeutic target in cardiac remodelling, acting via the mas receptor. Furthermore, we recently reported that an alternative peptide, Ang-(1-9) also counteracts cardiac remodelling via the angiotensin type 2 receptor (AT(2)R). Here, we have engineered adenoviral vectors expressing fusion proteins which release Ang-(1-7) [RAdAng-(1-7)] or Ang-(1-9) [RAdAng-(1-9)] and compared their effects on cardiomyocyte hypertrophy in rat H9c2 cardiomyocytes or primary adult rabbit cardiomyocytes, stimulated with angiotensin II, isoproterenol or arg-vasopressin. RAdAng-(1-7) and RAdAng-(1-9) efficiently transduced cardiomyocytes, expressed fusion proteins and secreted peptides, as demonstrated by western immunoblotting and conditioned media assays. Furthermore, secreted Ang-(1-7) and Ang-(1-9) inhibited cardiomyocyte hypertrophy (Control = 168.7±8.4 µm; AngII = 232.1±10.7 µm; AngII+RAdAng-(1-7) = 186±9.1 µm, RAdAng-(1-9) = 180.5±9 µm; P<0.05) and these effects were selectively reversed by inhibitors of their cognate receptors, the mas antagonist A779 for RAdAng-(1-7) and the AT(2)R antagonist PD123,319 for RAdAng-(1-9). Thus gene transfer of Ang-(1-7) and Ang-(1-9) produces receptor-specific effects equivalent to those observed with addition of exogenous peptides. These data highlight that Ang-(1-7) and Ang-(1-9) can be expressed via gene transfer and inhibit cardiomyocyte hypertrophy via their respective receptors. This supports applications for this approach for sustained peptide delivery to study molecular effects and potential gene therapeutic actions

Click-modified cyclodextrins as non-viral vectors for neuronal siRNA delivery

RNA interference (RNAi) holds great promise as a strategy to further our understanding of gene function in the central nervous system (CNS) and as a therapeutic approach for neurological and neurodegenerative diseases. However, the potential for its use is hampered by the lack of siRNA delivery vectors, which are both safe and highly efficient. Cyclodextrins have been shown to be efficient and low toxicity gene delivery vectors in various cell types in vitro. However, to date they have not been exploited for delivery of oligonucleotides to neurons. To this end, a modified β-cyclodextrin (CD) vector was synthesised, which complexed siRNA to form cationic nanoparticles of less than 200nm in size. Furthermore, it conferred stability in serum to the siRNA cargo. The in vitro performance of the CD in both immortalised hypothalamic neurons and primary hippocampal neurons was evaluated. The CD facilitated high levels of intracellular delivery of labelled siRNA, whilst maintaining at least 80% cell viability. Significant gene knockdown was achieved, with a reduction in luciferase expression of up to 68% and a reduction in endogenous glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) expression of up to 40%. To our knowledge, this is the first time that a modified CD has been used as a safe and efficacious vector for siRNA delivery into neuronal cells

Cyclodextrins for non-viral gene and siRNA delivery

Considerable research is focused on the development of non-viral vectors for gene and RNA interference therapies, with significant advancements in this field over the past number of years. Cationic lipids and polymers have been extensively investigated for these purposes, but there still remains a need for alternative vectors. Cyclodextrins (CDs) are cyclic oligosaccharides derived from starch and are well characterised pharmaceutical excipients. They offer many advantages as potential non-viral vectors for gene and siRNA delivery, in particular the ease with which they can be chemically modified and their limited toxicity. In recent years, there has been a surge in the number of publications concerning CDs in this field. In this paper, we will review the two main approaches to the use of CDs for gene and siRNA delivery. In the first instance, CDs are used as a scaffold, to which various chemical groups can be grafted, yielding monodisperse functionalised CDs which can self-assemble in the presence of oligonucleotides. CDs are particularly amenable to chemical modification and this approach enables specific and precise design of CD vectors for targeting to various cell and tissue types. In the second approach, CDs can be included as a component of a delivery system, for example, as part of a polymer backbone, appended to a dendrimeric vector, or in polyrotaxane systems. Here, the inclusion of CDs facilitates post-modification of the vector through the formation of inclusion complexes with adamantane and, in some instances, reduces toxicity of the vector. Lastly, we will consider the development of in vivo CD vectors for therapeutic use and other novel applications including siRNA delivery in neurons and the CNS

5-Vinylphosphonate improves tissue accumulation and efficacy of conjugated siRNAs in vivo

5-Vinylphosphonate modification of siRNAs protects them from phosphatases, and improves silencing activity. Here, we show that 5-vinylphosphonate confers novel properties to siRNAs. Specifically, 5-vinylphosphonate (i) increases siRNA accumulation in tissues, (ii) extends duration of silencing in multiple organs and (iii) protects siRNAs from 5-to-3 exonucleases. Delivery of conjugated siRNAs requires extensive chemical modifications to achieve stability in vivo. Because chemically modified siRNAs are poor substrates for phosphorylation by kinases, and 5-phosphate is required for loading into RNA-induced silencing complex, the synthetic addition of a 5-phosphate on a fully modified siRNA guide strand is expected to be beneficial. Here, we show that synthetic phosphorylation of fully modified cholesterol-conjugated siRNAs increases their potency and efficacy in vitro, but when delivered systemically to mice, the 5-phosphate is removed within 2 hours. The 5-phosphate mimic 5-(E)-vinylphosphonate stabilizes the 5 end of the guide strand by protecting it from phosphatases and 5-to-3 exonucleases. The improved stability increases guide strand accumulation and retention in tissues, which significantly enhances the efficacy of cholesterol-conjugated siRNAs and the duration of silencing in vivo. Moreover, we show that 5-(E)-vinylphosphonate stabilizes 5 phosphate, thereby enabling systemic delivery to and silencing in kidney and heart

Exosome-mediated Delivery of Hydrophobically Modified siRNA for Huntingtin mRNA Silencing

Delivery represents a significant barrier to the clinical advancement of oligonucleotide therapeutics for the treatment of neurological disorders, such as Huntington\u27s disease. Small, endogenous vesicles known as exosomes have the potential to act as oligonucleotide delivery vehicles, but robust and scalable methods for loading RNA therapeutic cargo into exosomes are lacking. Here, we show that hydrophobically modified small interfering RNAs (hsiRNAs) efficiently load into exosomes upon co-incubation, without altering vesicle size distribution or integrity. Exosomes loaded with hsiRNAs targeting Huntingtin mRNA were efficiently internalized by mouse primary cortical neurons and promoted dose-dependent silencing of Huntingtin mRNA and protein. Unilateral infusion of hsiRNA-loaded exosomes, but not hsiRNAs alone, into mouse striatum resulted in bilateral oligonucleotide distribution and statistically significant bilateral silencing of up to 35% of Huntingtin mRNA. The broad distribution and efficacy of hsiRNA-loaded exosomes delivered to brain is expected to advance the development of therapies for the treatment of Huntington\u27s disease and other neurodegenerative disorders

Imaging Net Retrograde Axonal Transport In Vivo: A Physiological Biomarker

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to develop a novel method for monitoring the integrity of motor neurons in vivo by quantifying net retrograde axonal transport. METHODS: The method uses single photon emission computed tomography to quantify retrograde transport to spinal cord of tetanus toxin fragment C ((125) I-TTC) following intramuscular injection. We characterized the transport profiles in 3 transgenic mouse models carrying amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)-associated genes, aging mice, and SOD1(G93A) transgenic mice following CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing. Lastly, we studied the effect of prior immunization of tetanus toxoid on the transport profile of TTC. RESULTS: This technique defines a quantitative profile of net retrograde axonal transport of TTC in living mice. The profile is distinctly abnormal in transgenic SOD1(G93A) mice as young as 65 days (presymptomatic) and worsens with disease progression. Moreover, this method detects a distinct therapeutic benefit of gene editing in transgenic SOD1(G93A) mice well before other clinical parameters (eg, grip strength) show improvement. Symptomatic transgenic PFN1(C71G/C71G) ALS mice display gross reductions in net retrograde axonal transport, which is also disturbed in asymptomatic mice harboring a human C9ORF72 transgene with an expanded GGGGCC repeat motif. In wild-type mice, net retrograde axonal transport declines with aging. Lastly, prior immunization with tetanus toxoid does not preclude use of this assay. INTERPRETATION: This assay of net retrograde axonal transport has broad potential clinical applications and should be particularly valuable as a physiological biomarker that permits early detection of benefit from potential therapies for motor neuron diseases

Hydrophobicity drives the systemic distribution of lipid-conjugated siRNAs via lipid transport pathways

Efficient delivery of therapeutic RNA beyond the liver is the fundamental obstacle preventing its clinical utility. Lipid conjugation increases plasma half-life and enhances tissue accumulation and cellular uptake of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). However, the mechanism relating lipid hydrophobicity, structure, and siRNA pharmacokinetics is unclear. Here, using a diverse panel of biologically occurring lipids, we show that lipid conjugation directly modulates siRNA hydrophobicity. When administered in vivo, highly hydrophobic lipid-siRNAs preferentially and spontaneously associate with circulating low-density lipoprotein (LDL), while less lipophilic lipid-siRNAs bind to high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Lipid-siRNAs are targeted to lipoprotein receptor-enriched tissues, eliciting significant mRNA silencing in liver (65%), adrenal gland (37%), ovary (35%), and kidney (78%). Interestingly, siRNA internalization may not be completely driven by lipoprotein endocytosis, but the extent of siRNA phosphorothioate modifications may also be a factor. Although biomimetic lipoprotein nanoparticles have been explored for the enhancement of siRNA delivery, our findings suggest that hydrophobic modifications can be leveraged to incorporate therapeutic siRNA into endogenous lipid transport pathways without the requirement for synthetic formulation

Serum Deprivation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells Improves Exosome Activity and Alters Lipid and Protein Composition

Exosomes can serve as delivery vehicles for advanced therapeutics. The components necessary and sufficient to support exosomal delivery have not been established. Here we connect biochemical composition and activity of exosomes to optimize exosome-mediated delivery of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). This information is used to create effective artificial exosomes. We show that serum-deprived mesenchymal stem cells produce exosomes up to 22-fold more effective at delivering siRNAs to neurons than exosomes derived from control cells. Proteinase treatment of exosomes stops siRNA transfer, indicating that surface proteins on exosomes are involved in trafficking. Proteomic and lipidomic analyses show that exosomes derived in serum-deprived conditions are enriched in six protein pathways and one lipid class, dilysocardiolipin. Inspired by these findings, we engineer an artificial exosome, in which the incorporation of one lipid (dilysocardiolipin) and three proteins (Rab7, Desmoplakin, and AHSG) into conventional neutral liposomes produces vesicles that mimic cargo delivering activity of natural exosomes

Comparative route of administration studies using therapeutic siRNAs show widespread gene modulation in Dorset sheep

siRNAs comprise a class of drugs that can be programmed to silence any target gene. Chemical engineering efforts resulted in development of divalent siRNAs (di-siRNAs), which support robust and long-term efficacy in rodent and nonhuman primate brains upon direct cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) administration. Oligonucleotide distribution in the CNS is nonuniform, limiting clinical applications. The contribution of CSF infusion placement and dosing regimen on relative accumulation, specifically in the context of large animals, is not well characterized. To our knowledge, we report the first systemic, comparative study investigating the effects of 3 routes of administration - intrastriatal (i.s.), i.c.v., and intrathecal catheter to the cisterna magna (ITC) - and 2 dosing regimens - single and repetitive via an implanted reservoir device - on di-siRNA distribution and accumulation in the CNS of Dorset sheep. CSF injections (i.c.v. and ITC) resulted in similar distribution and accumulation across brain regions. Repeated dosing increased homogeneity, with greater relative deep brain accumulation. Conversely, i.s. administration supported region-specific delivery. These results suggest that dosing regimen, not CSF infusion placement, may equalize siRNA accumulation and efficacy throughout the brain. These findings inform the planning and execution of preclinical and clinical studies using siRNA therapeutics in the CNS