Deep and optically resolved imaging through scattering media by space-reversed propagation

We propose a novel technique of microscopy to overcome the effects of both scattering and limitation of the accessible depth due to the objective working distance. By combining Laser Optical Feedback Imaging (LOFI) with Acoustic Photon Taging (APT) and Synthetic Aperture (SA) refocusing we demonstrate an ultimate shot noise sensitivity at low power (required to preserve the tissues) and a high resolution beyond the microscope working distance. More precisely, with a laser power of 10mW, we obtain images with a micrometric resolution over ~8 transport mean free paths, corresponding to 1.3 times the microscope working distance. Various applications such as biomedical diagnosis, research and development of new drugs and therapies can benefit from our imaging setup

Imagerie plénoptique à travers des milieux complexes par synthèse d'ouverture optique

Nous présentons un nouveau type d'imageur plénoptique appelé LOFI (Laser Optical Feedback Imaging). Le grand avantage de cette technique est qu'elle est auto-alignée, car le laser sert à la fois de source et de détecteur de photons. De plus, grâce à un effet d'amplification intra-cavité produit par la dynamique du laser, et grâce à un marquage acoustique des photons réinjectés, ce dispositif possède une sensibilité ultime au photon unique. Cette sensibilité est nécessaire si l'on veut réaliser des images à travers des milieux diffusants. L'autre intérêt présenté par le caractère plénoptique de notre imageur, est qu'il permet d'obtenir simultanément une double information: la position et la direction de propagation des rayons lumineux. Cette propriété offre des possibilités inhabituelles, comme celle de conserver la résolution d'un objectif de microscope bien au-delà de sa distance de travail, ou encore de pouvoir corriger par un post-traitement numérique les aberrations causées par la traversée d'un milieu hétérogène. Le dispositif LOFI plénoptique semble donc idéal pour une imagerie en profondeur à travers des milieux complexes, tels que les milieux biologiques. Les performances très intéressantes de cette imageur sont cependant obtenues au prix d'un filtrage spatial très coûteux en photons et au prix d'une acquisition des images réalisées point par point, donc relativement lente.We present LOFI (Laser Optical Feedback Imaging). The main advantage of this technique is that it is auto-aligned, as the laser plays both the role of an emitter and a receiver of photons. Furthermore, thanks to an intra-cavity amplification effect caused by the laser dynamics and an acoustic tagging of re-injected photons, this setup reaches a shot noise sensitivity (single photon sensitive). This sensitivity is necessary if our aim is to make images through scattering media. The other interest, which comes from the plenoptic property of our setup, is that one have access to a complete information about light rays (position and direction of propagation). This property implies unusual possibilities like keeping a constant resolution beyond microscope objectives working distance or being able to numerically compensate, after acquisition, aberrations caused by the propagation through heterogeneous media. Our setup is thus ideal for deep imaging through complex media (turbid and heterogeneous) like biological ones. These interesting properties are achieved at the price of a spatial filtering degrading photon collection efficiency and of a point by point image acquisition which is slow.SAVOIE-SCD - Bib.électronique (730659901) / SudocGRENOBLE1/INP-Bib.électronique (384210012) / SudocGRENOBLE2/3-Bib.électronique (384219901) / SudocSudocFranceF

Heterodyne beatings between frequency-shifted feedback lasers

International audienceFrequency-shifted feedback (FSF) lasers are potential candidates for long distance telemetry due to the appearance of beatings in the noise spectrum at the output of a homodyne interferometer: the frequencies of these beatings vary linearly with the path delay. In this Letter we demonstrate that these beatings also occur in the heterodyne mixing of two identical, but distinct, FSF lasers. This phenomenon is explained by the passive cavity model and is exploited to characterize the time-spectrum properties of FSF lasers. Consequences on telemetry with FSF lasers are presented

Generation of ultrahigh and tunable repetition rates in CW injection-seeded frequency-shifted feedback lasers

International audienceWe show both theoretically and experimentally that frequency-shifted feedback (FSF) lasers seeded with a single frequency laser can generate Fourier transform-limited pulses with a repetition rate tunable and limited by the spectral bandwidth of the laser. We demonstrate experimentally in a FSF laser with a 150 GHz spectral bandwidth, the generation of 6 ps-duration pulses at repetition rates tunable over more than two orders of magnitude between 0.24 and 37 GHz, by steps of 80 MHz. A simple linear analytical model i.e. ignoring both dynamic and non-linear effects, is sufficient to account for the experimental results. This possibility opens new perspectives for various applications where lasers with ultra-high repetition rates are required, from THz generation to ultrafast data processing systems

Theory of Talbot lasers

International audienceWe provide a theoretical study of frequency-shifted feedback (FSF) lasers, i.e., lasers with an internal frequency shifter, seeded with a monochromatic wave. The resulting spectrum consists in a set of equidistant modes, labeled by n, whose phases vary quadratically with n. We prove the emergence of a temporal fractional Talbot effect, leading to generation of Fourier-transform-limited pulses at a repetition rate tunable by the parameters of the FSF cavity (cavity length and frequency shift per round trip), and limited by the spectral bandwidth of the laser. We characterize in detail the output field of this so-called "Talbot laser" and emphasize its specific intensity fluctuations. We evidence connections with some aspects of number theory by the appearance of Gauss sums and theta series in the expression of the laser field. Our predictions are in full agreement with the experimental results published in Guillet de Chatellus [Opt. ExpressOPEXFF1094-408710.1364/OE.21.015065 21, 15065 (2013)]. Practical applications and limitations are discussed

Laser Optical Feedback Imaging (LOFI) controlled by an electronic feedback loop.

International audienceIn autodyne interferometry, the beating between the reference beam and the signal beam takes place inside the laser cavity and therefore the laser fulfills simultaneously the roles of emitter and detector of photons. In these conditions, the laser relaxation oscillations play a leading role, both in the laser quantum noise which determines the signal to noise ratio (SNR) and also in the laser dynamics which determines the response time of the interferometer. In the present study, we have experimentally analyzed the SNR and the response time of a Laser Optical Feedback Imaging (LOFI) interferometer based on a Nd3+ microchip laser, with a relaxation frequency in the megahertz range. More precisely, we have compared the image quality obtained, when the laser dynamics is free and when it is controlled by a stabilizing electronic feedback loop using a differentiator. From this study, we can conclude that when the laser time response is shorter (i.e. the LOFI gain is lower), the image quality can be better (i.e. the LOFI SNR can be higher) and that the use of an adapted electronic feedback loop allows high speed LOFI with a shot-noise limited sensitivity. Despite the critical stability of the electronic feedback loop, the obtained experimental results are in good agreement with the theoretical predictions

Limitations of synthetic aperture laser optical feedback imaging

In this paper we study the origin and the effect of amplitude and phase noise on Laser Optical Feedback Imaging (LOFI) associated with Synthetic Aperture (SA) imaging system. Amplitude noise corresponds to photon noise and acts as an additive noise, it can be reduced by increasing the global measurement time. Phase noise can be divided in three families: random, sinusoidal and drift phase noise; we show that it acts as a multiplicative noise. We explain how we can reduce phase noise by making oversampling or multiple measurements depending on its type. This work can easily be extended to all SA systems (Radar, Laser or Terahertz), especially when raw holograms are acquired point by point

Experimental comparison of autodyne and heterodyne laser interferometry using a Nd:YVO4 microchip laser

Using a Nd:YVO4 microchip laser with a relaxation frequency in the megahertz range, we have experimentally compared a heterodyne interferometer based on a Michelson configuration with an autodyne interferometer based on the laser optical feedback imaging (LOFI) method regarding their signal to noise ratios. In the heterodyne configuration, the beating between the reference beam and the signal beam is realized outside the laser cavity while in the autodyne configuration, the wave beating takes place inside the laser cavity and the relaxation oscillations of the laser intensity then play an important part. For a given laser output power, object under investigation and detection noise level, we have determined the amplification gain of the LOFI interferometer compared to the heterodyne interferometer. LOFI interferometry is demonstrated to show higher performances than heterodyne interferometry for a wide range of laser power and detection level of noise. The experimental results are in good agreement with the theoretical predictions

Synthetic aperture laser optical feedback imaging using a translational scanning with galvanometric mirrors

In this paper we present an experimental setup based on Laser Optical Feedback Imaging (LOFI) and on Synthetic Aperture (SA) with translational scanning by galvanometric mirrors for the purpose of making deep and resolved images through scattering media. We provide real 2D optical synthetic-aperture image of a fixed scattering target with a moving aperture and an isotropic resolution. We demonstrate theoretically and experimentally that we can keep microscope resolution beyond the working distance. A photometric balance is made and we show that the number of photons participating in the final image decreases with the square of the reconstruction distance. This degradation is partially compensated by the high sensitivity of LOFI

Sensitivity of synthetic aperture laser optical feedback imaging

In this paper we compare the sensitivity of two imaging configurations both based on Laser Optical Feedback Imaging (LOFI). The first one is direct imaging, which uses conventional optical focalisation on target and the second one is made by Synthetic Aperture (SA) Laser, which uses numerical focalisation. We show that SA configuration allows to obtain good resolutions with high working distance and that the drawback of SA imagery is that it has a worse photometric balance in comparison to conventional microscope. This drawback is partially compensated by the important sensitivity of LOFI. Another interest of SA relies on the capacity of getting a 3D information in a single x-y scan