The FORAGEKID game: hybrid-foraging as a new way to study aspects of executive function in development

In hybrid foraging, observers search for multiple exemplars of multiple targets (e.g. look for yellow and purple perler-beads in the handicrafts box). Adults can perform hybrid searches for, literally, hundreds of different target objects. How does this ability to handle memory load develop during childhood? We compared performance under different memory loads at different ages (5–6, 11–12, and +18 years-old) in our FORAGEKID hybrid foraging video game, where observers searched for different moving real-world toys. Especially under higher memory loads, younger children show an ineffective target switching search compared to a strategy featuring longer “runs” of one type of target, implemented by older children and adults. All observers follow similar "quitting" rules for moving to the next screen. The results show that FORAGEKID could be a useful tool for understanding the development of aspects of executive function: combining memory, attentional control, and decision/strategy processes within a single enjoyable taskThis work was supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program, Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions, under grant FORAGEKID 793268, granted to Beatriz Gil-Gómez de Liaño at the University of Cambridge, Universidad Complutense de Madrid and BWH-Harvard Medical School, and by NIH EY017001 given to Jeremy M. Wolf

¿Es posible predecir el comportamiento de los inversionistas en los mercados bursátiles?: una aproximación psicológica

Understanding financial markets and investors’ behavior is one of the biggest objectives in finance. However, most of the research obtained conclusions about individual investors, but they are not studying real individual investors’ behavior: they analyzed stock price evolution or used aggregate investor data that essentially belongs to founds and big investors. Psychology has improved financial knowledge and solved many of those financial limitations. Because of that, we decided to apply one of the most valid psychological models to study human behavior, in order to better understand real individual investors’ behavior: the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB; Ajzen, 1991). The model was applied to 127 real investors obtained by the “snowball” technique. According to results, TPB seems to be a good model to understand individual investor’s behavior, while explaining 63% of the investments’ intentions and 48% of the investments’ behavior.Entender los mercados financieros y el comportamiento de los inversionistas es uno de los objetivos principales en materia de finanzas. Sin embargo, se encuentra que la mayor parte de las conclusiones de estas investigaciones sobre los inversionistas no estudian el comportamiento de los mismos: normalmente se encuentra un análisis de la evolución de los precios de las acciones o datos utilizados de inversionistas que pertenecen esencialmente a los grandes mercados. La psicología ha mejorado el conocimiento financiero y ha resuelto muchas de las limitaciones en finanzas. Debido a esto, se ha decidido aplicar uno de los modelos psicológicos más válidos para estudiar el comportamiento humano, con el fin de comprender mejor el comportamiento de los inversionistas. Este modelo es la Teoría del Comportamiento Planeado ([TPB]; Ajzen, 1991). El modelo se aplicó a 127 inversionistas reclutados por la técnica de “bola de nieve”. Según los resultados, el TPB parece ser un buen modelo para comprender el comportamiento de los individuos, al tiempo que explicó el 63 % de la intención de inversión y el 48 % de la conducta de inversión

Working memory effects in speeded RSVP tasks

The present paper examines the effects of memory contents and memory load in rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) speeded tasks, trying to explain previous inconsistent results. We used a one target (Experiment 1) and a two-target (Experiment 2) RSVP task with a concurrent memory load of one or four items, in a dual-task paradigm. A relation between material in working memory and the target in the RSVP impaired the identification of the target. In Experiments 3 and 4, the single task was to determine whether any information in memory matched the target in the RSVP, while varying the memory load. A match was detected faster than a non-match, although only when there was some distance between targets in the RSVP (Experiment 4). The results suggest that memory contents automatically capture attention, slowing processing when the memory contents are irrelevant to the task, and speeding processing when they are relevant.Spain. Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte (José Castillejo Grant

Working memory effects in speeded RSVP tasks

The author may only post his/her version provided acknowledgement is given to the original source of publication and a link is inserted to the published article on Springer's website. The link must be provided by inserting the DOI number of the article in the following sentence: “The final publication is available at Springer via http://dx.doi.org/[insert DOI]”The present paper examines the effects of memory contents and memory load in rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) speeded tasks, trying to explain previous inconsistent results. We used a one target (Experiment 1) and a two-target (Experiment 2) RSVP task with a concurrent memory load of one or four items, in a dual-task paradigm. A relation between material in working memory and the target in the RSVP impaired the identification of the target. In Experiments 3 and 4, the single task was to determine whether any information in memory matched the target in the RSVP, while varying the memory load. A match was detected faster than a non-match, although only when there was some distance between targets in the RSVP (Experiment 4). The results suggest that memory contents automatically capture attention, slowing processing when the memory contents are irrelevant to the task, and speeding processing when they are relevant.Data collection was made possible thanks to the financed research project by the ‘‘Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación. Plan Nacional I+D+i 2008–2011. Ref. PSI2010-20175’’. This work was also supported by MH47432

Research participation improves student’s exam performance

Although there have been several attempts to explore for beneficial effects of research participation in social sciences, most of them have mainly explored satisfaction and students learning perceptions (e.g., Bowman & Waite, 2003). Very few works have studied learning by measuring exam performance. Moreover, participation has been usually conceptualized as a mixture of active and passive participation, including in the same measure different practices such as filling up questionnaires, running experiments or reading and answering questions about a journal article or a scientific conference. The present work tries to determine if there is an advantage due to research participation comparing exam performance, satisfaction and perceived learning of the matter Research Methods in Psychology, in three different groups (non-participating, passive and active participating). As we can see in the results, the mere participation benefits exam performance. Results are discussed in terms of the use of research participation as a new powerful active method in education.Aunque ha habido varios intentos por estudiar los posibles efectos beneficiosos de la participación en investigaciones en Ciencias Sociales, la mayoría de ellos han estudiado la satisfacción y la percepción de aprendizaje de los alumnos (e.g., Bowman & Waite, 2003), y muy pocos trabajos han tomado medidas del rendimiento en los exámenes. Además, la participación ha sido habitualmente conceptualizada como una mezcla entre participación activa y pasiva, incluyendo en la misma medida prácticas muy distintas tales como rellenar cuestionarios, pasar experimentos o leer y responder a una serie de cuestiones sobre un artículo o una conferencia científica. El presente trabajo pretende determinar si existe beneficio en el rendimiento en un examen, la satisfacción y el aprendizaje percibido por los alumnos en la materia de Métodos de investigación en psicología, en tres grupos distintos (grupo de no participación, participación pasiva y participación activa) gracias a la participación en una investigación en psicología. Como se puede ver en los resultados, la mera participación beneficia la ejecución en el examen. Los resultados son discutidos en términos del uso de la participación de nuestros estudiantes en investigaciones, como un nuevo y potente método activo de educación

The time course of visual foraging in the lifespan: Spatial scanning, organization search, and target processing

Visual foraging is a variant of visual search, consisting of searching for an undetermined number of targets among distractors (e.g., looking for various LEGO pieces in a box). Under non-exhaustive tasks, the observer scans the display, picking those targets needed, not necessarily all of them, before leaving the search. To understand how the organization of such natural foraging tasks works, several measures of spatial scanning and organization have been proposed in the exhaustive foraging literature: best-r, intertarget distances, PAO, and target intersections. In the present study, we apply these measures and new Bayesian indexes to determine how the time course of visual foraging is organized in a dynamic non-exhaustive paradigm. In a large sample of observers (279 participants, 4–25 years old), we compare feature and conjunction foraging and explore how factors like set size and time course, not previously tested in exhaustive foraging, might afect search organization in non-exhaustive dynamic tasks. The results replicate previous fndings showing younger observers’ searching being less organized, feature conditions being more organized than conjunction conditions, and organization leading to a more efective search. Interestingly, observers tend to be less organized as set size increases, and search is less organized within a patch as it advances in time: Search organization decreases when search termination is coming, suggesting organization measures as potential clues to understand quitting rules in search. Our results highlight the importance of studying search organization in foraging as a critical source of understanding complex cognitive processes in visual searchOpen Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature. This work was supported by the Research Grant Project PSI2015-69358-R (MINECO/FEDER) “Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad” (MINECO), and “Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional” (FEDER), given to Beatriz Gil-Gómez de Liaño as PI at Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. Also, part of the research of this study was done thanks to the Fulbright Commission, and the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program, Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions, under Grant FORAGEKID 793268, also granted to Beatriz Gil-Gómez de Liaño at the University of Cambridge, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, and BWH-Harvard Medical Schoo

Foraging behavior in visual search: a review of theoretical and mathematical models in humans and animals

Visual search (VS) is a fundamental task in daily life widely studied for over half a century. A variant of the classic paradigm—searching one target among distractors—requires the observer to look for several (undetermined) instances of a target (so-called foraging) or several targets that may appear an undefined number of times (recently named as hybrid foraging). In these searches, besides looking for targets, the observer must decide how much time is needed to exploit the area, and when to quit the search to eventually explore new search options. In fact, visual foraging is a very common search task in the real world, probably involving additional cognitive functions than typical VS. It has been widely studied in natural animal environments, for which several mathematical models have been proposed, and just recently applied to humans: Lévy processes, composite and area-restricted search models, marginal value theorem, and Bayesian learning (among others). We conducted a systematic search in the literature to understand those mathematical models and study its applicability in human visual foraging. The review suggests that these models might be the first step, but they seem to be limited to fully comprehend foraging in visual search. There are essential variables involving human visual foraging still to be established and understood. Indeed, a jointly theoretical interpretation based on the different models reviewed could better account for its understanding. In addition, some other relevant variables, such as certain individual differences or time perception might be crucial to understanding visual foraging in humansThe present work has been supported by the financed research project of the “Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad de España, Dirección General de Investigación Científica y Técnica”. Ref. PSI2015-69358-

Quitting rules in hybrid foraging search: From early childhood to early adulthood

In hybrid foraging, observers search for multiple instances of multiple target types. Children regularly perform such tasks (e.g., collecting LEGO pieces or looking for different teammates within a game). Quitting rules (When do you leave the search?) are important in foraging (e.g., I found enough LEGOs or teammates). However, the development of quitting behavior has not yet been experimentally studied, and it could give us significant information about executive function development. We tested 279 observers (4–25 years old) using classic feature and conjunction foraging. The results show that while children’s performance improved with age, all groups made similar "quitting" decisions roughly following optimal choices as defined by Charnov’s Marginal Value Theorem (MVT), with the youngest 4–5 years old children quitting slightly earlier. It seems that mature quitting rules in search operate relatively early in development, suggesting that those rules are quite basic aspects of the human cognitionThis work was supported by the Research Grant Project PSI2015–69358-R (MINECO/FEDER) “Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad” (MINECO), and “Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional” (FEDER), given to Beatriz Gil-Gomez ´ de Liano ˜ as PI. Also, part of the research of this study was done thanks to the Fulbright Commission, and the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program, Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions, under grant FORAGEKID 793268, also granted to Beatriz Gil-Gomez de Liaño at the University of Cambridge, Universidad Complutense de Madrid and BWH-Harvard Medical School, and by NIH EY017001 given to Jeremy M. Wolf

Attentional development can help us understand the inattentional blindness effect in visual search

Introduction: Inattentional Blindness (IB) is the failure to notice an unexpected, usually salient stimulus while immersed in a different, often demanding attentional task. More than just a laboratory curiosity, IB is an important phenomenon to understand because it may be related to real-world errors such as missed “incidental findings” in medical image or security searches. Interest in individual differences in susceptibility to IB has produced a number of studies showing inconclusive results. Methods: Here, we tested IB in a sample of 277 participants, 4-25 years old performing a visual search task. On two critical trials, an unexpected letter and an unexpected word were presented among photorealistic objects. Results: There was a clear age effect with younger individuals showing higher IB levels. IB correlated with attentional control in visual search and with Continuous Performance Test-CPT for d-prime, response times and attentional shifting measures. These effects disappeared if age was controlled. There were no general effects of intelligence (IQ; RIST) or gender. Younger observers showed a negative correlation of IB for the word with the verbal components of the RIST IQ-proxy (no effect for the letter). Discussion: These results support a relationship between IB and cognitive-developmental changes, showing that maturation of attention and executive processes can help us understand the intriguing phenomenon of (sometimes) missing what is in front of our eyesThis work was supported by the Research Grant Project PSI2015-69358-R (MINECO/FEDER) Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) and Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) and the ongoing project PID2021-122621OBI00 (Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación de España) granted to BG-G. It was also supported by the Fulbright Commission, and the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program, Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions, FORAGEKID 793268, also granted to BG-G, as well as by the NIH EY017001 granted to J

The Role of Cognition in Dishonest Behavior

Dishonesty has received increased attention from many professionals in recent years for its relevance in many social areas such as finance and psychology, among others. Understanding the mechanisms underlying dishonesty and the channels in which dishonesty operates could enable the detection and even prevention of dishonest behavior. However, the study of dishonesty is a challenging endeavor; dishonesty is a complex behavior because it imposes a psychological and cognitive burden. The study of this burden has fostered a new research trend that focuses on cognition’s role in dishonesty. This paper reviews the theoretical aspects of how such cognitive processes modulate dishonest behavior. We will pay special attention to executive functions such as inhibitory processes, working memory, or set-shifting that may modulate the decision to be (dis)honest. We also account for some frameworks in cognitive and social psychology that may help understand dishonesty, such as the Theory of Mind, the role of creative processes, and discourse analyses within language studies. Finally, we will discuss some specific cognitive-based models that integrate cognitive mechanisms to explain dishonesty. We show that cognition and dishonest behavior are firmly related and that there are several important milestones to reach in the future to advance the understanding of dishonesty in our society