Categorized Affective Pictures Database (CAP-D)

Emotional picture databases are commonly used in emotion research. The databases were first based on ratings of emotional dimensions, and the interest in studying discrete emotions led to the categorization of subsets from these databases to emotional categories. However, to-date, studies that categorized affective pictures used confidence intervals in their analysis, a method that provides important data but also results in a high percentage of blended or undifferentiated categorization of images. The current study used 526 affective pictures from four databases and categorized the pictures to discrete emotions in two steps (Pre-testing phase & Experiment 1). First, clinical psychologists were asked to generate emotional labels for each picture, according to the emotion the picture evoked in them. This resulted in the creation of 10 emotional categories. These labels were presented to students who were asked to choose the emotional category that matched the emotion a presented picture evoked in them. Agreement levels on the emotional categories were calculated for each picture, and pictures were categorized according to the most dominant emotion they evoked. The analysis of agreement levels rather than confidence intervals enabled us to provide both dominance of emotional category and agreement in the population regarding the dominance. In Experiment 2, we asked participants to provide ratings of emotional intensity and arousal, in order to provide more detailed information regarding the database. This is the first study to provide agreement levels on the categorization of affective pictures, and may be useful in various studies which aim at generating specific emotions

Autism and ADHD Symptoms in Patients with OCD: Are They Associated with Specific OC Symptom Dimensions or OC Symptom Severity?

In obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), the relationship between autism spectrum disorders (ASD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptom, and obsessive-compulsive (OC) symptom dimensions and severity has scarcely been studied. Therefore, 109 adult outpatients with primary OCD were compared to 87 healthy controls on OC, ADHD and ASD symptoms. OCD patients showed increased ADHD and autism symptom frequencies, OCD + ADHD patients reporting more autism symptoms (particularly attention switching and social skills problems) than OCD − ADHD patients. Attention switching problems were most significant predictors of OC symptom dimensions (except hoarding) and of symptom severity. Hoarding was not associated with elevated autism scale scores, but with inattention. In conclusion, attention switching problems may reflect both symptom overlap and a common etiological factor underlying ASD, ADHD and OCD

Predictors of the 6-year outcome of obsessive-compulsive disorder: Findings from the Netherlands Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Association study

Objective: Obsessive-compulsive disorder is characterized by a chronic course that can vary between patients. The knowledge on the naturalistic long-term outcome of obsessive-compulsive disorder and its predictors is surprisingly limited. The present research was designed to identify clinical and psychosocial predictors of the long-term outcome of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Methods: We included 377 individuals with a current diagnosis of obsessive-compulsive disorder, who participated in the Netherlands Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Association study, a multicenter naturalistic cohort study. Predictors were measured at baseline using self-report questionnaires and clinical interviews. Outcome was assessed using the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale at 2-, 4- and 6-year follow-up. Results: The overall course of obsessive-compulsive disorder was characterized by two prominent trends: the first reflected an improvement in symptom severity, which was mitigated by the second, worsening trend in the long term. Several determinants affected the course variations of obsessive-compulsive disorder, namely, increased baseline symptom severity, late age of onset, history of childhood trauma and autism traits. Conclusion: The long-term outcome of obsessive-compulsive disorder in naturalistic settings was characterized by an overall improvement in symptom severity, which was gradually halted to the point of increased worsening. However, after 6 years, the severity of symptoms remained below the baseline level. While certain determinants predicted a more favorable course, their effect diminished over time in correspondence to the general worsening trend. The results highlight the importance of a regular and continuous monitoring for symptom exacerbations as part of the management of the obsessive-compulsive disorder, regardless of the presence of putative predictors

Childhood trauma and attachment style predict the four-year course of obsessive compulsive disorder: Findings from the Netherlands obsessive compulsive disorder study

Introduction: Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is a chronic psychiatric disorder where most patients do not reach full symptomatic remission. Identifying predictors of course can improve patients’ care by informing clinicians on prognosis and enhancing treatment strategies. Several predictors associated with improved outcome of OCD were identified. However, research focused mainly on clinical, illness-related predictors of the course of OCD. This study examined the contribution of environmental and interpersonal predictors on the long-term outcome of OCD, in addition to the previously identified clinical indicators. Methods: We used the baseline, two and four-year data of 382 adult OCD patients participating in the naturalistic cohort study of the Netherlands Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Association (NOCDA). Remission was assessed using the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS). Predictors of outcome were assessed at baseline, via clinician-rated and self-report instruments. Results: Remission at two and at four-year follow-up ranged from 11% to 26%. Early age of onset and the presence of childhood trauma predicted a worse four-year course. Secure attachment style emerged as a protective predictor of improved outcome. Limitations: The naturalistic design of our study did not enable a systematic estimation the effect of treatments received during the follow-up period. Furthermore, age of onset and childhood trauma were assessed retrospectively, which may contribute to recall bias. Conclusion: Results coincide with previous prediction research and stress the importance of adaptive interpersonal functioning in the course of OCD. Clinical implications and future research directions are discussed

Predictors of treatment outcome in OCD: An interpersonal perspective

Although effective treatments for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) are increasingly available, a considerable percentage of patients fails to respond or relapses. Predictors associated with improved outcome of OCD were identified. However, information on interpersonal determinants is lacking. This study investigated the contribution of attachment style and expressed emotion to the outcome of exposure and response prevention (ERP), while accounting for previously documented intrapersonal (i.e., symptom severity and personality pathology) predictors. Using logistic regression analyses and multi-level modeling, we examined predictors of treatment completion and outcome among 118 adult OCD patients who entered ERP. We assessed outcome at post treatment, and at four and 13 months from treatment completion. OCD baseline severity and fearful attachment style emerged as the main moderators of treatment outcome. Severe and fearfully attached patients were more likely to dropout prematurely. The improvement of fearful clients was attenuated throughout treatment and follow-up compared to non-fearful clients. However, their symptom worsening at the long-term was also mitigated. Severe OCD patients had a more rapid symptom reduction during treatment and at follow-up, compared to less severe clients. The findings suggest that both baseline OCD severity and fearful attachment style play a role in the long-term outcome of ERP

Body mass index in obsessive-compulsive disorder

Background: : Psychiatric disorders are associated with overweight/obesity. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may be an exception, as anecdotal evidence suggests lower BMI in OCD. Additionally, depression is associated with elevated BMI, but effects of comorbid secondary depression are unknown. The aim of the present study was to assess BMI and risk for overweight/obesity in OCD and to assess the effect of comorbid depression on BMI. Methods: : BMI, demographics, and clinical status were assessed in large samples of individuals with OCD, anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, comorbid anxiety/depressive disorders, and non-clinical controls (NCC). Results: : Although no initial differences were found between the samples on BMI, the non-depressed OCD subsample had significantly lower BMI and risk for overweight/obesity compared to all other clinical samples. NCC were nearly twice as likely to be overweight compared to non-depressed OCD. Limitations: : Eating disorders were excluded in the OCD sample, but BMI < 17 was used as an exclusion criterion in the clinical control groups in lieu of screening for Anorexia. Group differences on demographics were controlled for. Recruitment methodology differed between samples. Conclusions: : OCD is associated with significantly lower rates of obesity and overweight, but this relationship was not found when comorbid depression was present. This suggests that the purer the phenotype of OCD, the more substantial protective factor against overweight/obesity emerges compared to other clinical samples and NCC. An OCD-specific reward/anhedonia model, previously offered to elucidate lower smoking rates in OCD, may account for lower BMI in OCD. These results warrant careful clinical attention to the negative impact of comorbid depression on OCD that spans from increasing risk for obesity and cigarette smoking, to hindering treatment response

The correlates of social phobia in OCD: Findings from a large clinical sample

Objectives: Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a debilitating psychiatric disorder, often complicated with comorbidities. Social phobia (SP) is the most frequent co-occurring anxiety disorder in OCD, associated with increased clinical severity. However, no study had examined the relevance of interpersonal processes in this comorbidity, which are at the core of SP. This study characterized the clinical (i.e., symptom profile, age of onset, chronicity, and comorbidity), vulnerability (i.e., childhood trauma, negative life events), and interpersonal (attachment style, expressed emotion, and social support) correlates of comorbid SP in a large sample of OCD patients. Methods: We analysed the data of 382 OCD patients participating in the Netherlands Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Association (NOCDA) study. We examined the correlates of SP in OCD using self-report questionnaires and structured clinical interviews. In addition, data of 312 non-OCD SP patients were drawn from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety (NESDA), to compare the age of onset of SP between groups. Descriptive univariate analyses were followed by backward stepwise logistic regression analyses. Results: Social phobia was present among approximately 20% of OCD patients. Social phobia in OCD was associated with increased depression severity and decreased ratings of secure attachment style. Among OCD patients, SP had a significantly earlier age onset as compared to SP in non-OCD patients. Conclusion: Social phobia in OCD might render a vulnerable clinical picture, characterized with early onset of SP symptoms, insecure attachment style, and increased depressive symptoms. Future studies should use prospective designs to better understand the nature of comorbid SP in OCD. Practitioner points: Approximately one fifth of OCD patients were diagnosed with comorbid social phobia in a large representative clinical sample. OCD patients with comorbid social phobia presented with a vulnerable clinical picture, characterized with increased depression severity and decreased ratings of secure attachment style. Social phobia in OCD was associated with an earlier AOO as compared to the AOO of social phobia without OCD. The findings are limited by a cross-sectional design; thus, causality could not be assessed. Research is needed to further examine the mechanisms of comorbid social phobia in OCD