Self-Medication Practices In Addis Ababa: A Prospective Study

BACKGROUND: Self-care is a response of individuals to promote or restore their health. Self-medication, one form of self-care, it is the selection and use of medicines by individuals to treat self-recognized illnesses or symptoms of illnesses. Although there are arguments for and against self-medication, its contribution in the promotion of health is beyond doubt. This study deals with self-medication on modern drugs and it attempts to assess self-medication practices of drug consumers. METHODS: A multi-stage stratified sampling of drug retail outlets in Addis Ababa was employed. Convenient sampling was used to select respondents from among those who came to the community pharmacies to purchase drugs for self-medication. Respondents were interviewed after they made their requests but before they were provided with information on the drugs they requested. Data were collected using a pre-tested semistructured questionnaire. RESULTS: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents revealed that drug consumers consisted of all age categories of both genders; as well as pregnant and breast-feeding mothers of varying educational background levels. The most frequently reported illnesses that prompted self-medication of respondents were gastrointestinal diseases, headache, fever and respiratory tract infections. Slightly greater than 30% of illnesses/symptoms of illnesses were less than 24 hours and around one-fifth, one or more weeks of duration. The most common reasons reported for self-diagnosis and selfmedication were non-seriousness of the disease, emergency use and prior experience on the drug. Two-thirds of the drug consumers requested drugs by specifically mentioning the name of the drug or category to which it belongs and 20.7% by telling their illness or symptoms of illnesses. More than 100 different types of drugs were requested, the most frequent category of drugs being analgesics or antipyretics 30.1%, antimicrobials (26.4%) and gastrointestinal drugs (17.7%). CONCLUSION: Self-medication is widely practised for a wide range of illnesses or symptoms of illnesses, and for both over-the-counter and prescription only drugs. The public as well as the health care providers have to be educated on the scopes of selfmedication; i.e., the type of illnesses to be self-diagnosed and self-treated, and the type of drug products to be used in order to promote responsible self-medication.Ethiop J Health Sci. Vol. 14, No. 1 January 200

The chemical composition of the effluent from Awassa Textile Factory and its effects on aquatic biota

The chemical composition of the effluent from the Awassa textile factory was quantified and its effects on chlorophyll-a concentration and fish fry were examined. The effluent contained high concentrations of toxic heavy metals, and concentrations of about 70% of all the elements measured were higher (by 10 to 100 times) in effluent treated in ponds (biological lagoons) than straight from the factory, presumably due to concentration by evaporation. Chlorophyll-a concentration in lake water samples containing 10% and 20% textile effluent from the ponds increased by 5 to 1400% and 7 to 4000%, respectively, whereas the changes in the control were -24% to 433%. About 18% and 53% of the fish fry died within 12 hr in 10% and 20% pond effluent in lake water, respectively. The highest mean mortality level was about 64% in the 20% effluent treatment at 24 hr. It was concluded that the effluent treatment ponds of the factory do not efficiently reduce the chemicals in the discharge. The observed effects of the "treated effluent" on phytoplankton biomass and fish fry indicate the undesirable effects the effluent will have on Lake Awassa. It is recommended that an alternate waste disposal system for the textile factory be set up, with regular monitoring of its effectiveness, so as to avoid undesirable long-term changes to the lake. Key words/phrases: Chemical composition, chlorophyll-a, fish fry, effluent, textile factory SINET: Ethiopian Journal of Science Vol.25(2) 2002: 263-27

Feeding habits of the Nile perch, Lates niloticus (L.) (Pisces: Centropomidae) in Lake Chamo, Ethiopia

Diet composition and ontogenetic diet shift of the Nile perch, Lates niloticus (L.) were studied from 411 fish samples (1.9 cm to 192 cm TL) collected from February 1995 to May 1996. Most fish samples (n=221, 53.8%) had empty stomachs. Except the two smallest fry (1.9 cm and 2.3 cm TL) fish samples (n=188) that contained food in their stomachs consumed only fish. The cyprinid fish Labeo horie (Heckel) was the most important prey organism of juvenile and adult L. niloticus and occurred in 49.4% of the stomachs examined, constituted 38.02% of the total number and 70.44% of the total volume of the prey. Oreochromis niloticus (L.) occurred in 22.35% of the stomachs accounted for 19% of the total number and 24.82% of the total volume of food consumed. Hydrocynus forskahlii (Cuvier) occurred in 14.12% of the stomachs, constituted 9.92% of the total number and 2.72% of the total volume of prey consumed. Cannibalism was observed in 19.4% of juvenile fish (n=62, 48.5–73.2 cm TL) and smaller L. niloticus constituted 26.1% of the total volume of food consumed within this size range. H. forskahlii, O. niloticus and L. niloticus were the main prey of fish 90 cm TL. Based on index of relative importance (IRI) L. horie was the most important prey (5359) followed by O. niloticus (979), L. niloticus (392) and H. forskahlii (178.5). Fry and fingerlings of L. niloticus (n=20) ranging from 1.9 to 7.1 cm TL were caught using a beach seine of 6 mm mesh size. The two smallest fish (1.9 cm and 2.5 cm TL) had eaten insect larvae while the remaining 18 fish had all eaten 1–3 fry of O. niloticus that ranged from 0.8 to 1.9 cm TL.Key words/phrases: Cannibalism, diet composition, Lates niloticus, ontogenetic diet shift, predation SINET: Ethiopian Journal of Science Vol. 28 (1) 2005: 61-6

PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF STARCH ISOLATED FROM ETHIOPIAN POTATO (PLECTRANTHUS EDULIS)

Starch from the tubers of Ethiopian potato (Plectranthus edulis) (Fam. Lamiaceae) has been isolated and examined for its chemical composition, amylose content and physicochemical properties. The starch yield was about 80.4% on dry weight basis. The proximate composition of the starch on dry weight basis was found to be 0.14% ash, 0.21% lipid, 0.43% protein, and 99.2% starch. The amylose content was 30.6%. Its true density and moisture content values were 1.47 g/mL and 11.2%, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the starch granules showed characteristic morphology that was by and large oblong (elliptical) with some oval-shaped granules. The starch has normal granule size distribution with a mean particle size of 36.2 µm. The DSC thermograms of the starch obtained from starch-water mixtures (1:1), exhibited gelatinization onset temp. (To) of 69.2 oC, peak temp. (Tp) of 74.3 oC and endset temp. (Te) of 83.3 oC. X-ray diffraction pattern of the starch was typical B-type with a distinctive maximum peak at 17.5o 2θ.The starch possesses higher swelling power and moisture sorption pattern but lower solubility values than those of potato starch at all temperatures studied. Considering the high yield and some similar physicochemical properties to those of potato starch, P. edulis (Ethiopian potato) can be explored as an alternative source of starch for various applications

Effect of Injection Location and Multi-Hole Nozzle on Mixing Performance in a CNG-Fuelled Engine with Port Gas Injection, Using CFD Analyses

A compressed natural gas injection device with moving-coil electromagnetic linear actuator and mushroom type poppet valve was designed to supply a large-bore intake port injection type engine with sufficient fuel timely. The transient engine CFD model combined with the poppet valve's motion was established to research the effect of injection conditions on the mixing homogeneity in the intake port and cylinder. Computed penetration distances of impinging jet with different k-ε models and different wall functions are compared with measured results in the literature to validate the model. It was observed that the gas injection location and number of nozzle holes have a significant effect on mixing performance both in the intake port and cylinder

Trends and Challenges in Access to Essential Medicines in Ethiopia and the Contributions of Local Pharmaceutical Production

Decades ago, the United Nations declared that access to essential medicines was a key element of universal human rights. Accordingly, member  states have been striving to address this issue through strategic policies and programs. Strengthening local pharmaceutical production has been a  pivotal strategy adopted by many developing countries including Ethiopia. The government of Ethiopia identified local pharmaceutical production  as a key industrial sector and has been implementing a ten-years strategic plan to improve capabilities and attract investment. Such support is  needed because local production could satisfy only 15 to 20% of the national demand, typically from a limited portfolio of medicines in conventional  dosage forms.The increasing prevalence of chronic diseases has accentuated the need for a more sustainable supply to reduce reliance on imports  and increase access to essential medicines. A full understanding of the structure, constraints and complexities of the Ethiopian pharmaceutical  market structure is vital to direct effective policies, target most impactful investments and exploit opportunities for leapfrogging. Hence, the  purpose of this review was to assess the trends and challenges in access to essential medicines and local pharmaceutical production in Ethiopia.  Literature search through major databases and review of policy documents and performance reports from relevant sector institutions were made to  extract information for the review. &nbsp

Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Somali ethnic group, Jigjiga Woreda, Somali Regional State, Eastern Ethiopia

Introduction: In Ethiopia, most people are dependent on traditional medicine (TM), mainly of plant origin for human and animal health problems. The practice of herbal medicine varies widely, in keeping with the societal and cultural heritage of different countries. The heritage has not been well documented in the developing countries including Ethiopia and this is even more so in the emerging regions of the country. The objective of this study was to document medicinal plant knowledge of the people and identifying factors determining the use of medicinal plants in Jigjiga Woreda, Somali Regional State, eastern Ethiopia.Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in five kebeles from where ethno-medicinal information was collected using semi-structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered to 800 heads of households. Data were entered and analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences version 20. Multivariable logistic regression was performed to show possible associations between the dependent and independent variable and statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.Results: The study documented an overall prevalence of 40% to use of herbal medicine during one month recall period. A total of 45 medicinal plant species were collected and botanically identified. The study found that leaves are the most frequently utilized plant part (30.5%), followed by roots (23.0%). The reasons for preference of herbal drugs were related to lower price, efficacy and geographic accessibility as compared to modern medicine. Age, gender, educational status and occupation were identified as important determinants for the use of herbal medicine.Conclusion: This ethno-medicinal study showed that community in Jigjiga Woreda relies on traditional medicinal plant species to treat a wide spectrum of human ailments. It is therefore suggested that more in depth studies be condicted to explore the potential of traditional medicine in the region to preserve this indigenous knowledge. [Ethiop. J. Health Dev. 2017;31(3):188-199]Keywords: Ethnomedicine, Jigjiga Woreda, Medicinal plants, Somali ethnic grou

PREPARATION AND EVALUATION OF CARBOXYMETHYL ENSET AND CASSAVA STARCHES AS PHARMACEUTICAL GELLING AGENTS

Starch is usually modified either chemically, physically or enzymatically to augment its convenience for industrial use. In the current study, starches from Enset and cassava plants were carboxymethylated, and factors which affect the carboxymethylation process and degree of substitution (DS) were studied. The application of the carboxymethyl starches as alternative pharmaceutical gelling agents for topical delivery of drugs was also investigated. Accordingly, nine different topical gel formulations of ibuprofen were prepared. All formulations were evaluated with respect to cosmetic qualities, pH, drug content, viscosity, spreadability, extrudability, in vitro drug release, anti-inflammatory activity and stability. The results showed that carboxymethylation was significantly affected by the starch source, reaction medium, temperature and time. All ibuprofen gel formulations showed homogeneous appearance, smooth texture and pleasant odor. The pH values of the formulations ranged from 6.80 to 7.22. Ibuprofen content ranged between 98.76 and 100.20% ensuring the uniformity of the drug content. The cumulative percent ibuprofen released over 12 h across cellulose membrane ranged from 43.8% cm-2 to 84.5% cm-2. Spreadability, extrudability, the cumulative drug release and diffusion coefficient of ibuprofen were influenced not only by the rheological properties of the formulations but also by the nature of the modified starches. Physicochemically stable ibuprofen gels were obtained with potent anti-inflammatory activities.   Keywords: Enset starch, cassava starch, carboxymethylation, degree of substitution, ibuprofen gel, in vitro drug release, anti-inflammatory activity, stability stud

PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF ACID MODIFIED DIOSCOREA STARCH AND ITS EVALUATION AS DIRECTLY COMPRESSIBLE EXCIPIENT IN TABLET FORMULATION

D. abyssinica was partially hydrolyzed in 6% HCl solution at room temperature for different lengths of time, (2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 days), dried using oven- and spray- drying techniques and subsequently investigated as directly compressible excipient in paracetamol tablet formulations. Native dioscorea starch (NDS) and oven dried acid modified dioscorea starch (AMDS) exhibited poor flow characteristics, whereas spray dried AMDS was found to be free flowing powder with 21.37 ± 1.39° angle of repose and 13.24 ± 0.76 g/sec flow rate. Both swelling power and percent solubility of the starches were found to increase with increase in temperature; AMDS showed higher percent solubility of 68.53%. Lubricant sensitivity and dilution potential of spray dried NDS and spray dried AMDS were investigated by incorporating magnesium stearate and paracetamol, respectively. In tablet formulations, spray dried AMDS and Starch 1500® tablets were produced with acceptable tablet characteristics up to 1% and 0.5% magnesium stearate concentrations, respectively. The spray dried AMDS was able to accommodate up to 40% paracetamol with acceptable criteria.  Thus, it can be concluded that AMDS can be used as an alternative directly compressible excipient in tablet formulations. Keywords:  Dioscorea starch, acid modification, spray drying, directly compressible excipient

Enhancing ethics review of social and behavioral research : developing a review template in Ethiopia

CITATION: Wassie, L. et al. 2019. Enhancing ethics review of social and behavioral research : developing a review template in Ethiopia. Research Ethics, 15(3-4):1–23, doi:10.1177/1747016119865731.The original publication is available at https://journals.sagepub.com/home/reaBackground: Africa is increasingly becoming an important region for health research, mainly due to its heavy burden of disease, socioeconomic challenges, and inadequate health facilities. Regulatory capacities, in terms of ethical review processes, are also generally weak. The ethical assessment of social and behavioral research is relatively neglected compared to the review of biomedical and clinical studies, which led us to develop an ethics review assessment tool for use in the review of social and behavioral research in Ethiopia, which could potentially be of value in low- and middle-income settings. Methods: Initially, we did a comprehensive literature review on principles, guidelines, and practices of research ethics, on social and behavioral studies, from which we extracted query terms to explore the opinions of selected key informants and focus groups in Ethiopia. The discussants and informants were selected using a convenience sampling method to evaluate an ethics review template, which integrated issues that commonly arise in social and behavioral studies. Finally, we directly solicited opinions from the discussants about the desirability, feasibility, acceptability, and relevance of the ethics review assessment tool and used the resulting data to refine our initial draft. Results and conclusion: Although the same basic ethics principles govern all research studies, social and behavioral research have some disciplinary particularities that may require reviewers to exercise a different orientation of ethical attention in some cases. Using a qualitative approach, we developed a review assessment tool that could potentially be useful to raise awareness, focus attention, and strengthen the review of social and behavioral studies by ethics review committees, particularly in settings without a long-standing tradition of reviewing such research. This process also exposed some areas where further capacity building and discussion of ethical issues may be necessary among stakeholders in the review of social and behavioral research.Fogarty International Center of the National Institute of Health, USA (grant number R25 TW 008981)https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1747016119865731Publisher's versio