Socio-economic analysis of coffee growers in Gulmi district of Nepal

Coffee is a major plantation cash crop of hills of Nepal. Gulmi is one of the popular districts for coffee production and export in Nepal. This research is an attempt to assess the production potentiality and profitability of coffee in Gulmi district. This study was carried out in four rural municipalities of Gulmi district namely Ruru rural municipality, Dhurkot rural municipality, Satyawoti rural municipality and Musikot municipality. A total of 100 samples (25 from each rural municipality) were selected using simple random sampling technique. Face to face (FtF) interview method was used to collect primary data using pretested semi-structured questionnaire. The economic indicators of coffee production like gross revenue, gross margin, benefit-cost ratio (BCR) and profitability index (PI) were calculated. BCR and PI were found to be 2.84± 0.59 and 2.50± 1.25, respectively. Gross margin per ropani was calculated to be NRs. 15675.29 ± 7189.72. The contribution of coffee in total household income was 12% in Gulmi showing it to be one of the major influencing commodities. The major production problem was found to be insect attack in the district while the major marketing problem was the low market price. The insights of this research were that coffee has the potentiality to uplift the rural income of Gulmi but at the same time there were poor extension services for coffee growers such that farmers had shown dissatisfaction towards coffee enterprise. Therefore, effective package of production and value chain monitoring should be introduced by the Nepal government in order to address the production and marketing constraints of coffee producers

Volume changes and brain-behavior relationships in white matter and subcortical gray matter in children with prenatal alcohol exposure: Volume Changes and Brain-Behavior in Children with PAE

Children with prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) may have cognitive, behavioral and brain abnormalities. Here, we compare rates of white matter and subcortical gray matter volume change in PAE and control children, and examine relationships between annual volume change and arithmetic ability, behavior, and executive function. Participants (n=75 PAE/64 control; age: 7.1–15.9 years) each received two structural magnetic resonance scans, ~2 years apart. Assessments included Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV), the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF). Subcortical white and gray volumes were extracted for each hemisphere. Group volume differences were tested using false discovery rate (FDR, q<0.05). Analyses examined group-by-age interactions and group-score interactions for correlations between change in volume and raw behavioral scores. Results showed that subjects with PAE had smaller volumes than control subjects across the brain. Significant group-score interactions were found in temporal and parietal regions for WISC arithmetic scores and in frontal and parietal regions for behavioral measures. Poorer cognitive/ behavioral outcomes were associated with larger volume increases in PAE, while control subjects generally showed no significant correlations. In contrast with previous results demonstrating different trajectories of cortical volume change in PAE, our results show similar rates of subcortical volume growth in subjects with PAE and control subjects. We also demonstrate abnormal brain-behavior relationships in subjects with PAE, suggesting different use of brain resources. Our results are encouraging in that, due to the stable volume differences, there may be an extended window of opportunity for intervention in children with PAE

An investigation into the structural variability of the prefrontal cortex and Its relationship to cognition and ageing

The world is ageing at a rapid rate. Cognitive impairments, including dementia get increasingly common with age. Brain structural changes and the role of frontal cortex in cognitive ageing are well established. However, there is a paucity of research investigating differences between middle-aged adults, when cognitive difficulties are minimal, and early old-aged adults, where decline in memory are just starting to become apparent and dementia is less prevalent than during later decades. Furthermore, most studies investigating brain structure have used cortical volumes, and the associations between cortical shape changes such as cortical thickness and gyrification during ageing have not been adequately investigated. This thesis examines the structural variability of the prefrontal regions and its relationships with cognitive function contrasting middle-aged and early old-aged groups. Analyses were undertaken using the second wave of the Personality and Total Health (PATH) Through Life Study. This study collects data on the three narrow-aged cohorts living in Canberra and Queanbeyan region (Australia) every four years. Participants were aged 40-44 and 64-68. Relationships between brain structure and cognitive function were measured using three cortical indices: cortical volume, thickness, and gyrification. Cognitive tests utilized included measures for episodic memory, processing speed, mental flexibility, working memory, and reaction times. Cortical structural measures were obtained through the use of automated brain parcellation software FreeSurfer. Structure-cognition relationships were investigated using Path analyses. Early old-aged adults showed poorer performance in each of the cognitive domains tested. However, structure-cognition relationships varied by age-group and the structural measure utilised. While middle-aged adults showed mostly positive relationships with cortical volume, thickness, and gyrification, older adults showed mostly negative relationships with structural measures. The probability of detecting such relationships increased when more than one cortical measure was used as the use of cortical thickness and gyrification revealed significant relationships for middle-aged adults even though no such relationships had been detected using frontal cortical volume. While the focus of the thesis was investigating how structural variability of the prefrontal cortex can affect the detection of structure-cognition relationships in middle-aged and early old-aged adults, additional investigations were also undertaken to verify the measurement of frontal structure through automated methods. The research undertaken investigated frontal cortical measurement for volume using both manual and automated methods and established that both methods provided equivalent results for measurement of absolute volume and for relationships between cognitive and demographic variables. Research conducted demonstrated that structure-cognition relationships differ between adults of different ages. Overall, the findings suggest that different structural measures can provide separate and unique information, which capture variance of the frontal cortex and can help clarify the nature of relationships between structure and function in ageing. In addition, the significant relationships between cortical gyrification with brain volumes, cortical thickness, and cognitive functioning suggest that gyrification measures can be used as a predictor of cortical function in future structure-cognition studies. Research on the brain and cognitive ageing are fundamental in understanding cognitive ageing, so that effective strategies can be implemented to mitigate some of the adverse consequences of population ageing. Information from this thesis can be used to optimise the detection of structural correlates of cognitive function so that those with cognitive impairment are identified early and appropriate targeted interventions can follow

Relationships between cognitive function and frontal grey matter volumes and thickness in middle aged and early old-age adults: The PATH Through Life Study

The study examined the relationship of lateral frontal cortical volume and thickness with cognitive function in two samples of healthy middle aged (MA, 44-48. years old) and early old-age (OA, 64-68. years old) adults. T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging scans were acquired in 400 MA and 397 OA adults from respective random community samples. Cortical volumes and thickness were measured with a surface-based segmentation procedure (http://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu). Volumes of lateral frontal grey matter were found to be significantly lower for OA than MA. Structure-function relationships were investigated using path analyses. In OA, smaller lateral frontal volumes were associated with better episodic memory (EM) (p < 0.012, B = -0.117), and Symbol-Digit Modalities Test (SDM) (p < 0.031, B = -0.118) performance. Smaller frontal cortical thickness was also associated with better EM (p < 0.01) and SDM (p < 0.01) performance in OA. However, in MA greater cortical thickness was associated with better EM and (p < 0.01) and reaction time (RT) (p < 0.01). OA cohort showed significant positive correlations between Total Brain Volume and SDM, Digit-Backwards span and RT. Possible explanations and implications of the relationships in the context of cognitive aging in healthy adults, and limitations of cross-sectional research are discussed

Sex differences in cortical thickness in middle aged and early old-aged adults: Personality and Total Health Through Life study

INTRODUCTION: The study investigated sex differences in cortical thickness in middle-aged (MA, 44-48 years old, n=397) and early old-aged (OA, 64-68 years old, n=398) adults in a community-based sample. METHODS: T1-weighted three-dimensional structuralmagnetic resonance imaging scans were acquired in a Fast Field Echo sequence, and cortical thickness was measured with a surface-based segmentation procedure (http://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu). RESULTS: Results showed that after correcting for age, MA males had predominantly thicker superior temporal cortices, while MA females had thicker occipital, posterior cingulate, precentral, and postcentral cortices. Sex differences in OA adults were less prominent than those in MA adults with females showing thicker temporal and posterior cingulate cortices and males showing thicker rostral middle frontal regions. Between-cohort comparisons revealed that when compared with MA males, OA males showed many regions with significantly thinner cortices, but this pattern was less pronounced for OA females. Our results suggest that sex differences in cortical thickness are age specific, as larger differences in cortical thickness were found in MA compared to OA adults. CONCLUSION: The results of the present study indicate that the inconsistencies in sexual dimorphism that have been reported in the literature are partly due to the variable and transitory nature of cortical thickness differences with age.NHMRC (National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia

Cortical gyrification and its relationships with cortical volume, cortical thickness, and cognitive performance in healthy mid-life adults

Across species, greater cortical gyrification, or folding of the cortex, has been shown to be associated with higher cognitive abilities and is thought to reflect an evolutionary process aimed at maximizing the number of cerebral computational units while minimizing the energy and communication costs of larger brains. Relatively little is known about the significance of individual variation in gyrification in humans and how it relates to other aspects of cerebral structure and function. In the current study, we examined relationships between cortical gyrification and (i) cortical volume, (ii) cortical thickness, and (iii) executive functions. Participants were middle-aged healthy adults (44-48 years old, n=. 396) in a community-based sample. T1-weighted 3D structural magnetic resonance imaging scans were acquired in a Fast Field Echo sequence. Cortical gyrification, volume, and thickness were measured through the semi-automated software FreeSurfer. Results showed that cortical gyrification was strongly and positively related to cortical volume, but was negatively related to cortical thickness in many regions of the cortex. In addition, frontal gyrification was positively related to performance in working memory and mental flexibility tasks. These results support the view that greater cortical gyrification is related both to bigger brain volumes and better cognitive function, but not to greater cortical thickness. The results provide evidence of functional relevance of cortical gyrification development, and show that it can be a useful index to investigate structure-cognition relationships

Executive function and cortical thickness in youths prenatally exposed to cocaine, alcohol and tobacco

Small and detrimental, albeit inconsistent, effects of prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) during early childhood have been reported. The teratogenic effects of prenatal alcohol (PAE) and tobacco exposure (PTE) on neurobehavior are more firmly established than PCE. We tested if co-exposure to all three drugs could be related to greater differences in brain structure than exposure to cocaine alone. Participants (n = 42, PCE = 27; age range = 14–16 years) received an executive function battery prior to a T1-weighted 3 T structural MRI scan. Cortical thickness was measured using FreeSurfer (v5.1). Fetal drug exposure was quantified through maternal self-reports usage during pregnancy. Using general linear modeling, we found no main effects of PCE on cortical thickness, but significant main effects of PAE and PTE in superior and medial frontal regions, after co-varying for the effects of age, sex, and each drug of exposure. Significant alcohol-by-tobacco interactions, and significant cocaine-by-alcohol interactions on cortical thickness in medial parietal and temporal regions were also observed. Poly-drug exposure and cognitive function also showed significant interactions with cortical thickness: lower cortical thickness was associated with better performance in PCE-exposed adolescents. Results suggest that although children with PCE have subtle but persistent brain cortical differences until mid-to-late adolescence

Test-retest reliability of longitudinal task-based fMRI: Implications for developmental studies

Great advances have been made in functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) studies, including the use of longitudinal design to more accurately identify changes in brain development across childhood and adolescence. While longitudinal fMRI studies are necessary for our understanding of typical and atypical patterns of brain development, the variability observed in fMRI blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) signal and its test-retest reliability in developing populations remain a concern. Here we review the current state of test-retest reliability for child and adolescent fMRI studies (ages 5–18 years) as indexed by intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). In addition to highlighting ways to improve fMRI test-retest reliability in developmental cognitive neuroscience research, we hope to open a platform for dialogue regarding longitudinal fMRI study designs, analyses, and reporting of results. Keywords: fMRI, Test-retest reliability, Intraclass correlation, Developmen

A Longitudinal Study: Changes in Cortical Thickness and Surface Area during Pubertal Maturation

<div><p>Sex hormones have been shown to contribute to the organization and function of the brain during puberty and adolescence. Moreover, it has been suggested that distinct hormone changes in girls versus boys may contribute to the emergence of sex differences in internalizing and externalizing behavior during adolescence. In the current longitudinal study, the influence of <i>within-subject</i> changes in puberty (physical and hormonal) on cortical thickness and surface area was examined across a 2-year span, while controlling for age. Greater increases in Tanner Stage predicted less superior frontal thinning and decreases in precuneus surface area in both sexes. Significant Tanner Stage and sex interactions were also seen, with less right superior temporal thinning in girls but not boys, as well as greater decreases in the right bank of the superior temporal sulcus surface area in boys compared to girls. In addition, within-subject changes in testosterone over the 2-year follow-up period were found to relate to decreases in middle superior frontal surface area in boys, but increases in surface area in girls. Lastly, larger increases in estradiol in girls predicted greater middle temporal lobe thinning. These results show that <i>within-subject</i> physical and hormonal markers of puberty relate to region and sex-specific changes in cortical development across adolescence.</p></div

Tanner Stage and thickness.

<p>A.) Main effect of Tanner Stage Δ on average thickness (mm) in the left cuneus. Plot reflects the raw data with the fit line of the main effect. B) Main effect of Tanner Stage Δ on rate of change in thickness (mm/year) in the right superior frontal gyrus. Plot reflects the raw data with the fit line of the main effect. C.) Tanner Stage Δ-by-sex interactions seen for rate of change in thickness (mm/year) in the right superior temporal gyrus. Plot reflects raw data with the fit lines of the interaction effect; blue line = boys; pink line = girls. In B & C plots the dotted line reflects no change, with positive values (above line) reflecting growth and negative values (below line) reflecting thinning.</p