Few layer reduced graphene oxide : evaluation of the best experimental conditions for easy production

This work aimed to produce graphene oxide with few graphene layers, a low number of defects, good conductivity and reasonable amount of oxygen, adequate for use as filler in polymeric composites. Two starting materials were evaluated: expanded graphite and graphite flakes. The method of oxidation used was the Staudenmaier one, which was tested over different lengths of time. No appreciable differences were found among the oxidation times and so the lowest oxidation time (24 h) was chosen as the most adequate. An investigation was also conducted into suitable temperatures for the reduction of graphite oxide. A temperature of 1000 ºC gave the best results, allowing a good quality material with few defects to be obtained. The reduction was also evaluated under inert and normal atmosphere. The best results were obtained when the least modified material, e. g., graphite flakes, was used as a starting material, oxidized for 24h and reduced at 1000 ºC for 30 s in a quartz ampoule under a normal atmosphere

Lipopolysaccharide modulates astrocytic S100B secretion: a study in cerebrospinal fluid and astrocyte cultures from rats

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Inflammatory responses in brain are primarily mediated by microglia, but growing evidence suggests a crucial importance of astrocytes. S100B, a calcium-binding protein secreted by astrocytes, has properties of a neurotrophic or an inflammatory cytokine. However, it is not known whether primary signals occurring during induction of an inflammatory response (e.g. lipopolysaccharide, LPS) directly modulate S100B.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>In this work, we evaluated whether S100B levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum of Wistar rats are affected by LPS administered by intraperitoneal (IP) or intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection, as well as whether primary astrocyte cultures respond directly to lipopolysaccharide.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Our data suggest that S100B secretion in brain tissue is stimulated rapidly and persistently (for at least 24 h) by ICV LPS administration. This increase in CSF S100B was transient when LPS was IP administered. In contrast to these S100B results, we observed an increase in in TNFα levels in serum, but not in CSF, after IP administration of LPS. In isolated astrocytes and in acute hippocampal slices, we observed a direct stimulation of S100B secretion by LPS at a concentration of 10 μg/mL. An involvement of TLR4 was confirmed by use of specific inhibitors. However, lower levels of LPS in astrocyte cultures were able to induce a decrease in S100B secretion after 24 h, without significant change in intracellular content of S100B. In addition, after 24 h exposure to LPS, we observed a decrease in astrocytic glutathione and an increase in astrocytic glial fibrillary acidic protein.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Together, these data contribute to the understanding of the effects of LPS on astrocytes, particularly on S100B secretion, and help us to interpret cerebrospinal fluid and serum changes for this protein in neuroinflammatory diseases. Moreover, non-brain S100B-expressing tissues may be differentially regulated, since LPS administration did not lead to increased serum levels of S100B.</p

Modulation of neuropeptide Y levels is impaired in crack withdrawal patients

Introduction: The dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis has a key role in drug addiction susceptibility. In addition to the well-known relationship between cortisol and the HPA axis, other molecules are involved with stress response and could modify the HPA activation, such as the neuropeptide Y (NPY), which has anxiolytic proprieties. There are few studies evaluating the effect of NPY levels on addiction, especially in crack cocaine dependence. Objective: To evaluate NPY in crack users during early withdrawal to determine its relationship with drug use and cortisol levels. Methods: We analyzed 25 male inpatient crack users. Serum NPY levels were measured at admission and discharge (mean of 24 days). Morning salivary cortisol was measured at admission. Results: Serum NPY levels at admission and discharge were very similar. Lower NPY levels at discharge were associated with higher lifetime crack use. Also, a negative correlation was found between morning cortisol and delta NPY (NPY discharge – NPY admission). Conclusion: These preliminary findings indicate that crack use influences the modulation of NPY levels and modifies stress response. The NPY pathway may play an important role in the pathophysiology of crack addiction, and the anxiolytic effect of NPY may be impaired in crack users. Future studies should consider NPY as a measurable indicator of the biological state in addiction

Inflammatory cytokines and alcohol use disorder : systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective: To assess differences in blood inflammatory cytokines between people with alcohol use disorder (AUD) and healthy controls (HC). Methods: Searches were performed from inception through April 14, 2021. Meta-analyses with random-effects models were used to calculate the standardized mean difference ([SMD], 95%CI), and potential sources of heterogeneity were explored trough meta-regressions and subgroup analysis. Results: The meta-analysis included 23 studies on the following 14 cytokines: tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a, IL-1, IL-1RA, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-13, IL15, interferon (IFN)-g and sCD14. There were significantly higher concentrations of IL-6 (n=462 AUD and 408 HC; SMD = 0.523; 95%CI 0.136-0.909; p = 0.008) in AUD than HC. No significant differences were found in the other 13 cytokines. Conclusion: We found that IL-6 levels were significantly higher in individuals with AUD than HC and that other cytokines were not altered. This can be explained by the small number of studies, their methodological heterogeneity, and confounding factors (active use, abstinence, quantity, and physical or psychiatric illnesses, for example). Despite a great deal of evidence about alcohol and inflammatory diseases, studies assessing the role of neuroimmune signaling in the development and severity of AUD are still lacking

Methylglyoxal Induces Changes in the Glyoxalase System and Impairs Glutamate Uptake Activity in Primary Astrocytes

The impairment of astrocyte functions is associated with diabetes mellitus and other neurodegenerative diseases. Astrocytes have been proposed to be essential cells for neuroprotection against elevated levels of methylglyoxal (MG), a highly reactive aldehyde derived from the glycolytic pathway. MG exposure impairs primary astrocyte viability, as evaluated by different assays, and these cells respond to MG elevation by increasing glyoxalase 1 activity and glutathione levels, which improve cell viability and survival. However, C6 glioma cells have shown strong signs of resistance against MG, without significant changes in the glyoxalase system. Results for aminoguanidine coincubation support the idea that MG toxicity is mediated by glycation. We found a significant decrease in glutamate uptake by astrocytes, without changes in the expression of the major transporters. Carbenoxolone, a nonspecific inhibitor of gap junctions, prevented the cytotoxicity induced by MG in astrocyte cultures. Thus, our data reinforce the idea that astrocyte viability depends on gap junctions and that the impairment induced by MG involves glutamate excitotoxicity. The astrocyte susceptibility to MG emphasizes the importance of this compound in neurodegenerative diseases, where the neuronal damage induced by MG may be aggravated by the commitment of the cells charged with MG clearance

Few Layer Reduced Graphene Oxide: Evaluation of the Best Experimental Conditions for Easy Production

This work aimed to produce graphene oxide with few graphene layers, a low number of defects, good conductivity and reasonable amount of oxygen, adequate for use as filler in polymeric composites. Two starting materials were evaluated: expanded graphite and graphite flakes. The method of oxidation used was the Staudenmaier one, which was tested over different lengths of time. No appreciable differences were found among the oxidation times and so the lowest oxidation time (24 h) was chosen as the most adequate. An investigation was also conducted into suitable temperatures for the reduction of graphite oxide. A temperature of 1000 ºC gave the best results, allowing a good quality material with few defects to be obtained. The reduction was also evaluated under inert and normal atmosphere. The best results were obtained when the least modified material, e. g., graphite flakes, was used as a starting material, oxidized for 24h and reduced at 1000 ºC for 30 s in a quartz ampoule under a normal atmosphere

Caracterização funcional de modelos de cultura de astrócitos e mecanismo de internalização da proteína s100b

Os astrócitos são células gliais do sistema nervoso central (SNC) que, entre diversas funções, tem um importante papel na manutenção do ambiente extracelular, removendo neurotransmissores e íons os quais podem ser tóxicos em altas concentrações. Estas células estão envolvidas em diversas doenças neurodegenerativas e representam um importante alvo de estudo para o desenvolvimento de estratégias terapêuticas. A técnica de cultura primária (CP) de astrócitos de ratos é amplamente utilizada como modelo para o estudo de características mecânicas e bioquímicas dessa célula em um sistema isolado. Alternativamente, astrócitos imortalizados por transfecção (AI) e a linhagem C6 de rato (C6) são usados como modelo astrocítico, uma vez que são células mais homogêneas, além de serem de fácil e rápida manipulação. No entanto, apesar de resultados divergentes serem encontrados na literatura, existe uma carência de estudos comparativos entre estes três modelos experimentais. A escolha de um modelo adequado para o estudo destas células nos permitiria estudar de forma mais precisa as funções extracelulares de proteínas como a S100B. Essa proteína pode ser liberada ou secretada principalmente por astrócitos no SNC e, apesar de possuir efeitos tróficos, exerce funções tóxicas, quando em altas concentrações no meio extracelular. Apesar disso, pouco se sabe sobre o processo de remoção da S100B extracelular. Em vista disso, o objetivo desta tese foi comparar e caracterizar funcionalmente a CP, AI e C6 no que diz respeito a diferenças morfológicas, marcadores proteicos e funções clássicas astrocíticas, bem como estudar a capacidade destas células de internalizar a proteína S100B, avaliando-se o mecanismo deste processo. Além disso, foi realizada a padronização de um ensaio colorimétrico utilizando a atividade glutamil-transferase da glutamina sintetase (GS), visto a carência deste ensaio em cultura de astrócitos e em diferentes estruturas cerebrais. Esta enzima é considerada um marcador astrocítico e sua disfunção pode comprometer o ciclo glutamina-glutamato, processo relacionado ao quadro de excitotoxicidade glutamatérgica, observado em doenças neurodegenerativas. O ensaio mostrou-se preciso, sensível, linear, específico e com alta aplicabilidade no SNC e nos modelos de cultura celular. Nossos resultados mostraram que as duas linhagens celulares (AI e C6) foram positivas para proteínas características de astrócitos, bem como funcionais no metabolismo glutamatérgico e energético. No entanto, estes parâmetros mostraram-se reduzidos em estado basal em comparação com a CP. Frente a estímulos específicos, os AI não se mostraram como um modelo reprodutível das funções astrocíticas clássicas, ao contrário da linhagem C6, a qual apresentou resposta similar aos astrócitos de CP. De forma geral a linhagem C6 representou um modelo válido para estudo das características astrocíticas estudadas, porém sempre com valores basais reduzidos quando comparados com a CP que, em nossa avaliação, representou um melhor modelo para o estudo da internalização da proteína S100B. Estas células foram capazes de endocitar a S100B extracelular por um mecanismo dependente de RAGE e dinamina. Uma vez internalizada, a S100B seguiu pela via endocítica, colocalizando com importantes marcadores, como Dextran e Lysotracker. As vesículas de S100B mostraram um aumento de direcionalidade ao longo do tempo de incubação, afetado pela variação de cálcio intracelular. Estes dados mostram a importância da escolha de um modelo in vitro adequado de cultura de astrócitos, bem como evidenciam o importante papel destas células na remoção de concentrações tóxicas da proteína S100B do meio extracelular, auxiliando na compreensão dos mecanismos de sinalização desta proteína.Astrocytes are glial cells that participate in a variety of function of central nervous system (CNS) such as the maintenance of the extracellular environment, removing toxic concentration of ions and neurotransmitters. These cells are involved in several neurodegenerative diseases and are important targets for the development of therapeutic strategies. Astrocyte primary culture (PC) is a potent instrument to study these cells in an isolated system, allowing the elucidation of mechanistic features specific for this type of cell. An alternative to this model is the use of cell lines, such as immortalized astrocytes (IA) or C6 glioma cells (C6). These linages have the advantage to present more homogeneous features, are easily, faster and lower cost to manipulate. Despite these facilities, cell lines present highly proliferative features and some different characteristics in comparison to PC, which put into question the validity of them as an astrocytic model. The selection of a suitable model to the study of astrocytes would allow us to evaluate protein extracellular effects, such as S100B with greater reliability. This protein is released and secreted mainly by astrocytes in the CNS, exerting trophic and toxic effect in a RAGE dependent manner. S100B toxic effects are shown in high extracellular concentrations, although the clearance of this protein from the extracellular space is poorly understood. In view of this, the goal of this research was to show a comparative analysis of PC, IA and C6 regarding morphological features, protein profile and classical astrocytic functions. Furthermore, we evaluated the mechanism of S100B internalization, characterization of internalized vesicles and intracellular dynamics in astrocytes. In addition, the standardization of a colorimetric assay to measure the glutamyl-transferase activity of glutamine synthetase (GS) was performed, considering the lack of this study in culture of astrocytes and different brain structures. This enzyme is considered an astrocytic marker and any dysfunction may compromise the glutamine-glutamate cycle, which is observed in many neurodegenerative diseases. The assay was accurate, sensitive, linear, specific and with high applicability in the CNS. Our results showed that the two cell lines (IA and C6) were positive for characteristic proteins of astrocytes, although expressing less quantities then PC. Similarly, the glutamatergic and energetic metabolism and cellular communication by gap junction also showed to be reduced in lineages cells. IA did not reveal a reproducible model of classic astrocytic functions, in opposite to C6 cells that presented a similar response to PC when submitted to the same stimulus. Nevertheless, PC showed pronounced astrocytic characteristics, representing the best model for the study of S100B protein internalization. The results in this study revealed that cultured astrocytes efficiently remove fluorescently labeled extracellular S100B in a time-dependent manner by vesicle endocytosis. The internalization was RAGE and dynamine dependent. In time, vesicles capturing S100B exhibit directional mobility, meaning that vesicles get functionally attached to the cytoskeleton. Moreover, the mobility of vesicles capturing S100B was affected by changes in [Ca2+]. These data support to the understanding of the mechanism of extracellular signaling of S100B protein, as well as the role of astrocytes in this regulation

Efeito da amônia sobre a atividade astroglial no hipocampo de ratos Wistar

A hiperamonemia é observada tanto em doenças hepáticas quanto em erros inatos do metabolismo. A amônia em altas concentrações atravessa a barreira hematoencefálica e é tida como uma das principais causas para o desenvolvimento das alterações neuropsiquiátricas observadas na Encefalopatia Hepática (HE). Os prejuízos moleculares e fisiológicos causados por este íon são observados principalmente nas células astrocíticas às quais apresentam alterações na atividade de uma série de proteínas e enzimas clássicas de sua função. Entre elas destaca-se a proteína S100B, principalmente expressa e secretada por estas células e muito usada como marcadora de dano cerebral. Um aumento nas concentrações de S100B no soro tem sido observado em pacientes e modelos animais com HE, porém pouco foi visto sobre a indução na secreção da S100B provocado por altas concentrações de amônia no cérebro. Desta forma, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a secreção desta proteína em uma situação de hiperamonemia ex vivo, em fatias hipocampais e corticais, assim como in vivo em ratos hiperamonêmicos por indução com urease. Além disso, foi realizado a análise de outras funções astrocíticas, ainda controversas na literatura, e pouco analisadas na região hipocampal. A exposição à amônia induziu uma redução no conteúdo extracelular de S100B em fatias de hipocampo, porém não induziu alteração nas fatias de córtex cerebral. No entanto, um aumento na concentração de S100B foi observado no líquor, sem alteração no soro dos ratos com hiperamonemia. O hipocampo se mostrou uma região altamente susceptível aos efeitos da amônia, com redução na captação de glutamato, no conteúdo de GSH e sem alteração na atividade da glutamina sintetase. Além disso, o conteúdo de GFAP está aumentado nos ratos hiperamonêmicos evidenciando uma astrogliose na região hipocampal, o que pode estar contribuindo para patogênese de HE.Ammonia serum concentration is commonly raised in liver diseases and in inborn errors of urea cycle. High ammonia levels cross the blood brain barrier and is considered one of the main causes for the development of Hepatic Encephalopathy (HE), a neuropsychiatric disease. The molecular and physiological damages are observed mainly in astrocyte cells which present alterations in the activity of a number of proteins and enzymes of their classic function. Among these, stands out the S100B protein, mainly expressed and secreted by these cells and used extensively as a marker of cerebral damage. An increase in S100B serum has been observed in animal models and patients with HE. However, it is not known if ammonia can directly induce S100B secretion in the brain. In this study, we evaluated the secretion of this protein in hyperammonemia condition ex vivo, in hippocampal and cortical slices, and in vivo, in urease treated rats. We also analyzed other astrocyte functions, which are still controversial in the literature and little examined in the hippocampus. We found a reduction in the extracellular S100B content in hippocampal slices exposed to ammonia, but no change was observed in cortical slices. However, an increase in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) S100B level was found, with no change in serum level of this protein in hyperammonemic rats. The hippocampus revealed a very susceptible area to the ammonia effects, with a reduction in glutamate uptake as in glutathione (GSH) content and no change in glutamine synthetase activity. Moreover, GFAP content was increased in hippocampus of hyperammonemic rats indicating an astrogliosis, which may contribute to pathogenesis of HE