An assessment of the livelihood vulnerability of the riverbank erosion hazard and its impact on food security for rural households in Bangladesh

As the effects of climate change and hazards are starting to be felt worldwide, there are certain frontline countries that are most at risk and Bangladesh is genuinely at risk in terms of its economic viability and food security unless its citizens develop adaptation strategies to compensate for these effects. This study analyses how the impacts of climate change and hazards (specifically riverbank erosion) are already jeopardising the livelihood and food security of rural riparian (riverbank and char) households in Bangladesh, compromising their access to arable land, and thereby holding back their potential for both sustenance and economic development. The researcher has conducted extensive research in two severe riverbank erosion-prone districts in Bangladesh to assess the severity of these problems and to seek the strategies the affected people deploy to offset the effects. This study takes a holistic approach to two key vulnerability assessment methods – the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) and the Climate Vulnerability Index (CVI). Importantly, this study also develops an indicator-based Resilience Capacity Index (RCI) in order to understand the factors influencing the resilience capacity of these households. This study reveals that the LVI and CVI values are different between char (sandbar) and riverbank communities: households inhabiting char lands display the most vulnerability to climate change and hazards. Also, riparian households are found to be vulnerable due to their relative inaccessibility and low livelihood status which, coupled with the impact of the climate on river morphology, are causing erosion and a loss of land with a consequent decrease in economic potential, thereby perpetuating a cycle of poverty. Creating employment opportunities, increasing the level of education and ensuring access to food, water and health services are potential strategies that are likely to enhance the resilience capacity of such vulnerable households in Bangladesh. In regards to food security, more than 50% of the households are in the ‘food insecure’ category, with a per capita calorie consumption of 12% less than the standard minimum daily requirement. The estimated low Food Security Index (FSI) value indicates that these households can usually manage food twice per day for their family members. The results of logit modelling indicate that household size, educational attainment, adoption of livestock and access to non-farm earnings are important determinants of household food security. This study also finds new evidence that suggests access to improved health care also needs policy support in parallel with improved access to food to achieve and to sustain long-term food security in Bangladesh. Properly targeted income transfers and credit programs along with infrastructure and human development programs in the erosion-affected areas across the country may have very high payoffs by improving food security, and thus, reducing poverty in the long-term. To build resilience, households are autonomously adopting adaptation strategies such as diversifying crops, tree plantation (generally by large and medium farmers), and homestead gardening and migration (generally by small and landless farmers). However, some important barriers to adaptation are felt heterogeneously among the farming groups: among these are access to credit and a lack of information on appropriate adaptation strategies. The results of multi-nominal logit modelling indicate that the choice of an adaptation strategy is influenced significantly by a household head’s education, household income, farm category, access to institutions and social capital. To support adaptation locally and to enhance households’ resilience to cope better with riverbank hazards and other climate change issues, government intervention through planned adaptation such as access to institutions, credit facilities and a package of technologies through agro-ecologically based research are required. This study has contributed to our knowledge base through tailoring various theories and approaches in the context of riparian households in Bangladesh. The innovative coping and adaptation strategies could provide new insights for households in other hazard-prone regions in the world. The analytical framework used for assessing vulnerability, resilience, household food security and adaptation strategies should be replicated in other countries having similar characteristics to Bangladesh that are experiencing adverse impacts from climate change

Economic assessment of wheat breeding options for potential improved levels of post head-emergence frost tolerance

Frost, during reproductive developmental stages, especially post head emergence frost (PHEF), can result in catastrophic yield loss for wheat producers. Breeding for improved PHEF tolerance may allow greater yield to be achieved, by (i) reducing direct frost damage and (ii) facilitating earlier crop sowing to reduce the risk of late-season drought and/or heat stress. This paper provides an economic feasibility analysis of breeding options for PHEF tolerant wheat varieties. It compares the economic benefit to growers with the cost of a wheat breeding program aimed at developing PHEF tolerant varieties. The APSIM wheat model, with a frost-impact and a phenology gene-based module, was employed to simulate direct and indirect yield benefits for various levels of improved frost tolerance. The economic model considers optimal profit, based on sowing date and nitrogen use, rather than achieving maximum yield. The total estimated fixed cost of breeding program was AUD 1293 million, including large scale seed production to meet seed demand, with AUD 1.2 million year−1 to run breeding program after advanced development and large scale field experiments. The results reveal that PHEF tolerant varieties would lead to a significant increase in economic benefits through reduction in direct damage and an increase in yield through early sowing. The economic benefits to growers of up to AUD 4841 million could be realised from growing PHEF tolerant lines if useful genetic variation can be found. Sensitivity analyses indicated that the benefits are particularly sensitive to increases in fixed costs, seed replacement, discount rate, and to delays in variety release. However, the investment still remains viable for most tested scenarios. Based on comparative economic benefits, if breeders were able to develop PHEF tolerant varieties that could withstand cold temperatures −4 °C below the current damage threshold, there is very little further economic value of breeding total frost tolerant varieties

Livelihood Cycle and Vulnerability of Rural Households to Climate Change and Hazards in Bangladesh

Rural riverine households in Bangladesh are confronted with many climate-driven hazards, including riverbank erosion, which results in loss of productive land and other natural resources of the riverine households, and thus threatens their livelihoods and food security. This study assesses the main drivers of vulnerability and livelihood cycle of vulnerable riparian households in Bangladesh. The study utilises the IPCC framework of vulnerability and develops a weighted approach by employing the livelihood vulnerability index and the climate vulnerability index. The results reveal that the livelihood vulnerability index and the climate vulnerability index differ across locations, however, a high index value for both measures indicates the households’ high livelihood vulnerability to climate change and hazards. The main drivers that influence the vulnerability dimensions are livelihood strategies and access to food, water and health facilities. These hazard-prone households are also vulnerable due to their existing low livelihood status that leads to a vicious cycle of poverty. The findings of this study are crucial for policymakers to formulate and implement effective strategies and programs to minimise vulnerability and to enhance the local adaptation processes in order to improve such households’ livelihood across Bangladesh

Drivers of food security of vulnerable rural households in Bangladesh: implications for policy and development

Despite improvements in food production, many rural households in Bangladesh are still food insecure, and this requires urgent policy intervention if the situation is to improve. This article examines the factors influencing food security of vulnerable rural riverine households in Bangladesh. The results reveal that riverine households’ lack of access to many basic necessities and services, such as food, safe drinking water, education and health, results in increased vulnerability to food insecurity which could lead to an unfortunate vicious cycle of poverty. Model results indicate that household heads’ education, household size, adoption of livestock and access to non-farm earnings also affect food security. More importantly, evidence suggests that access to improved health care also needs policy support in parallel with improved access to food to achieve and sustain long-term food security in Bangladesh

Climate change perceptions and local adaptation strategies of hazard-prone rural households in Bangladesh

Adaptation is a key strategy that can alleviate the severity of climate change impacts on agriculture and food production. Adaptation strategies are unlikely to be effective without an understanding of the farmers’ perceptions of climate change. This paper explores the local knowledge of adaptation in response to the perceived impacts of climate change and climatic hazards using a survey of 380 resource-poor riverbank erosion-prone households in Bangladesh. The results indicate that the respondents’ perceptions of changes in the climate and of extreme climatic events are similar to the observed climate data. Households have recognized the impacts on their livelihood and resources, resulting in an increased sense of vulnerability. To build resilience, households have undertaken a range of farming and non-farming adaptation strategies, which vary significantly among the farming groups. The important adaptation strategies include adopting new crop varieties, changing planting time, homestead gardening, planting trees and migration. Improved access to finance and to information about appropriate strategies appears to be crucial to support adaptation processes locally and thus to enhance the resilience of vulnerable households

Impact of COVID-19 on vegetable supply chain and food security: Empirical evidence from Bangladesh.

In Bangladesh, the COVID-19 pandemic is likely to have substantial effects on the livelihood of people, but smallholder vegetables growers will be even more affected because of the perishability nature of the product. The first case of COVID-19 was confirmed in Bangladesh on 8th March, 2020 and consequently the country went into lockdown on 26 March, 2020. This study has made a survey of vegetables farmers through a mobile phone to understand the impact of COVID-19 on vegetables supply chain, gross margin and the future production plan of the growers. In Bangladesh, the lockdown has disrupted the food supply chain and increases the likelihood of food insecurity. Lockdown has impeded vegetable farmers' access to markets, thus limiting their productive and sales capacities. The price of yield has dropped by more than half resulting in huge loss for vegetable growers. The loss incurred by the farmers for producing Brinjal, Cucumber, Pointed gourd, Yardlong beans and Bottle gourd are BDT 4900, BDT 10900, BDT 57400, BDT 52500 and BDT 18500 per acre respectively as a result of COVID-19. The decreased income increases farmers' likelihood of vulnerability and food insecurity and poses a challenge to continued produce. 'Cash support' is more important than 'food support' in order to keep vegetable farmers in farming, to ensure a ready supply of necessary low-cost resources, and to help fight against the upcoming food shortage

How do climate change and associated hazards impact on the resilience of riparian rural communities in Bangladesh? Policy implications for livelihood development

Despite the increasing recognition of the need for building resilience among poor farmers in developing countries in the face of changing climate conditions, there is a lack of information on the various factors influencing their resilience capacity. This paper develops an indicator-based Resilience Capacity Index (RCI) aimed at a better understanding of the factors influencing resilience capacity of the most hazard-prone riparian rural households in Bangladesh, as a case study in a developing country. The RCI is a relative measure and the value ranges between 0 and 1, where the higher the value the higher the resilience capacity. The index value of 0.297 for riverine mainland households is significantly higher than that for char (island) households (0.201). However, the lower index values in both locations infers the households’ inability to cope with and adapt to the impacts of climate change and associated hazards due to a lack of adaptation options along with their poor socio-economic conditions. The main drivers of the resilience capacity include livelihood strategies, level of education, and access to food, water and health services. Creating employment opportunities, increasing the level of education, and ensuring access to food, water and health services are potential climate-resilient strategies that are likely to enhance the resilience capacity of most vulnerable riparian households across Bangladesh, with some experiences which may be replicable elsewhere

Strategies and barriers to adaptation of hazard-prone rural households in Bangladesh

The global farming communities have already experienced the impact of climate change in a range of ways and made their adaptation decision. Adaptation is, however, context-specific and varies across and within countries which warrants location specific research. This chapter presents the strategies and barriers to adaptation of hazards-prone rural households in developing countries using Bangladesh as a case study. The cross-sectional survey data were collected from 380 riverbank erosion hazard prone rural households in Bangladesh. The results reveal that households have undertaken a range of farming and non-farming adaptation strategies which varies significantly among farming groups. The large and medium farmers have adopted mainly agricultural adjustment such as diversifying crops and tree plantation. Whereas the small and landless farmers mostly adopted non-agricultural adjustments such as driving and migration. Access to credit and lack of information on appropriate adaptation strategies are among the important barriers to adaptation. Intervention by the government through planned adaptation, such as access to institutional and credit facilities, and new farming technologies and verities through agro-ecological based research are required to enhance the resilience of such vulnerable households

Hazards, food insecurity and human displacement in rural riverine Bangladesh: implications for policy

This paper examines the impacts of climate-induced hazards, especially riverbank erosion, on livelihoods and food security, and the ways in which susceptible households respond. The study uses survey data collected from 380 riverbank erosion-prone rural households in Bangladesh, along with data from focus group discussions involving household heads from severe erosion-prone areas. A Food Security Index (FSI) has been developed to improve understanding of the extent of households' food insecurity where 3 indicates food security and 1 minimal security. Over the past 10 years, about a third of households have lost their homestead more than three times and 57% have lost at least once. The overall FSI value of 2.06 indicates households' difficulties in managing family food requirements throughout the year. Migration co-exists with vulnerable households' food security with households that have no or limited agricultural land, coupled with inadequate employment opportunities, are more inclined to migrate. Households that are struggling to make a living through farming are responding by coping and adaptation. Interventions such as access to institutions and credit facilities, human capital development and a package of technologies through agro-ecological based research for emerging char land (sandbars) are required to build resilience of the riparian households as well as improve their food security and livelihoods

Influence of socio-demographic factors on mobile phone adoption in rural Bangladesh: policy implications

Access to information and communication technology (ICT) has been considered crucial to alleviate poverty and improve food security of rural households. The mobile phone is an ICT that is widely used by rural households in developing countries. This study examines the determinants of mobile phone adoption using survey data of vulnerable rural households in Bangladesh, a developing country; the study empirically assesses the income hypothesis of mobile phone adoption in particular. Four alternative specifications of the model are developed to test the stability and robustness of the estimates. The study finds rural households have heterogeneous access to ICT such as radio, TV, computer and the Internet except mobile phone. Our estimated Gini coefficient indicates high income inequality among the rural households. The model results suggest that household income positively influences mobile phone adoption. However, the impact is not statistically significant. Other factors such as respondents’ age, education and farm category are statistically significant influences on mobile phone adoption. An increasing use of mobile phones is likely to enhance the sharing of valuable information among rural households for the better management of their livelihoods and improved farming decisions