Effect of water supply on leaf area development, stomatal activity, transpiration, and dry matter production and distribution in young olive trees

Two-year-old olive trees cv. Cornicabra, trained in a central leader form for hedgerow planting, were grown outdoors in 45-L weighing lysimeters to evaluate the effect of water supply on growth and development. Four treatments were established and maintained for 155 days during spring–autumn. Treatment T100 was irrigated to maintain the potting medium close to water-holding capacity by progressive replenishment of consumption that was measured at weekly intervals by weighing and recording drainage. Treatments T80, T60, and T40 received 80, 60, and 40%, respectively, of the water applied to T100. For these treatments, transpiration and leaf area were measured every fortnight. Dry matter in roots, stems, and leaves was measured at the beginning and end of the experiment. Leaf conductance was measured at 09:00 and 12:00 solar time every fortnight and at c. 2-hourly intervals throughout one day each month. Over the experimental period, T100 produced 0.42±0.01m2 leaf area, 319.6±60.4 g dry biomass, and transpired 77.5±1.1 L water. Water stress significantly reduced leaf area development and dry matter production (P<0.05) in T60 and T40, but not in T80. There was no effect on dry matter partitioning to the various organs of the trees or the roots/aerial part ratio. Leaf conductance was more sensitive to water stress than vegetative growth, with significant differences (P<0.05) established among treatments 3 weeks before differences were observed in transpiration. In autumn, transpiration and leaf conductance increased in all treatments independently of soil water status. Over the experiment, transpiration efficiency (TE, g/L) increased with reducedwater supply, with a significant difference (P<0.10) between T100 and both T60 and T40. The study has established that maximum growth of young olive plants can be achieved, without effect on the distribution of biomass between organs, at water supply less than that required to support maximum transpiration

Summer deficit irrigation strategies in hedgerow olive orchard cv. ‘Arbequina’: Effect on fruit characteristics and yield.

Maximum production in hedgerow olive orchards is likely not achieved with maximum evapotranspiration over the long-term. Thus, regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) should be considered as a management option. Four irrigation treatments were evaluated during the summer when olive is most drought resistant. Control (CON) was irrigated to maintain the rootzone close to field capacity. Severe water deficit was applied by irrigating 30% CON from end of fruit drop to end July (DI-J) and from end July until beginning of oil synthesis (DI-A). Less severe water deficit was applied during July and August (DI-JA) by irrigating 50% CON. Flowering, fruiting, abscission, fruit development, fresh and dry weight of fruits, and oil production were evaluated. There were not significant differences in number of buds initiated, number of fruits per inflorescence and fruit drop. Oil production was significantly different between irrigation treatments in all experimental years. CON produced more oil and fruit with higher oil% than DI-A and DI-JA. Oil production of DI-J was not significantly reduced compared to CON and oil% was greater. DI-J was the most effective RDI strategy; with 16% less applied water relative to CON average loss in oil production of 8% was not significantly different to CON. While DI-JA saved most water (27%), oil production was reduced by 15%. Greatest loss in oil production (21%) was observed in DI-A with water saving of 22%

Yield determination in olive hedgerow orchards. I. Yield and profiles of yield components in north–south and east–west oriented hedgerows

A study of the vertical distribution of flowering and fruit set and of components of yield (fruit numbers, fruit size, and fruit oil content) was maintained for 2 years in N–S- and E–W-oriented olive hedgerows of comparable structure (row spacing 4m, hedgerow height to 2.5 m, width c. 1m) near Toledo, Spain (39.98N). Mean yield of the N–S orchard was 1854 kg oil/ha without difference between sides or years. Yield of the E–W orchard was greater in 2006, producing 2290 kg/ha, but only 1840 kg/ha in 2007, the same as the N–S orchard. The S side of the E–Worchard yielded more (59%) than the N side in 2007. In both orchards and years, most fruit was produced at 1.0–2.0m height and fruit density was the most influential component in these differences, reflecting more intense bud initiation in these upper layers. Other components that determined fruit number, fertile inflorescences, fruits per fertile inflorescence, and fruit drop were not significantly different between layers. Fruit characteristics depended on hedgerow position. In both N–S and E–W hedgerows, fruit high in the hedgerow was the largest, most mature, and with highest oil content. These differences were more marked in N–S than in E–W hedgerows. Fruit growth and development were concentrated from the middle of September until the end November. Oil content per fruit increased linearly during that period when 65% of final oil content was accumulated. Similar patterns were observed between sides. The results of yield and yield profiles are discussed in the general context of light interception. The results suggest the importance of hedgerow porosity, and distinct penetration patterns of direct-beam radiation through N–S and E–W hedgerows, as the basis for explanation of the high yield of the N side of E–W hedgerows

Yield determination in olive hedgerow orchards. II. Analysis of radiation and fruiting profiles

Profiles of fruit density, fruit size, and oil content were measured on 12 occasions in 7 olive orchards in Spain and 2 in Australia. Orchard structure varied widely. Height ranged from 2.0 to 5.5 m, row spacing from 3 to 6 m, and canopy width from 0.7 to 3m. Most orchards were oriented north–south (N–S) but one in Spain was oriented close to east–west (E–W)(208NE–SW). All orchards in Spain were cv. Arbequina, and in Australia they were cvv. Barnea and Picual. Analyses with a model of interception and transmission that estimated interception by individual sides of hedgerows revealed that fruit size and oil content were strongly related to intercepted radiation during the month before harvest across all orchards. Relationships were also evident between fruit density and interception but varied among orchards and years, indicating the importance of other environmental and probably physiological effects. In N–S orchards of cv. Arbequina, average fruit size and oil content increased linearly from 0.40 g (dry weight) to 0.72 g, and from 36 to 49% (of dry weight), as daily intercepted PAR increased from 6 to 25 mol/m2 (15–60% of horizontally incident radiation). The general principles of response extended to E–W orchards. There, it was shown that generally large fruit with high oil content on S sides was consistent with the plateau responses to radiation evident in the more extensive N–S data. On the N side, however, and accounting for transmission through the hedgerow, both fruit size and oil content were greater than in positions intercepting equivalent radiation inN–S orchards. Examples are provided of the utility of responses of fruit density, size, and oil content in establishing combinations of row height, row width, and row distance to improve or maintain productivity in some of the orchards included in the study

Descripción de la iniciación floral, floración, cuajado, caída de frutos y endurecimiento del hueso

La cantidad de aceite que produce un olivo depende del número de aceitunas que haya desarrollado y del aceite sintetizado en cada aceituna. En este artículo se exponen los principales factores que determinan el número definitivo de aceitunas, para ello se revisan los procesos fisiológicos implicados: inducción y diferenciación floral, floración, cuajado y caída de frutos. Desde prácticamente un año y medio antes de la recolección, durante la inducción a flor de las yemas formadas en primavera, ya se empieza a definir el número de aceitunas, y finaliza, si no hay incidencias extraordinarias, cuatro meses antes de recolección

Los cultivos mediterráneos en China : el caso del olivar

El mercado del aceite de oliva en China tiene un gran potencial, por ello, hay un interés creciente en incrementar la superficie de olivo en el país. En este artículo se describe la historia reciente del cultivo del olivo en China, las características del clima y suelo de la zona donde actualmente se cultiva el olivo y la adaptación del olivo a estas condiciones

Diseño y manejo del olivar en seto : avances y retos

La conducción del olivar en seto en plantaciones comerciales se inició en España a principios de los 90. En el manejo y diseño del olivar en seto intervienen varios aspectos. Las dimensiones del seto deben permitir la recoleccion con vendimidora y una adecuada iluminación. En este documento se recogen los principales avances realizados en el conocimiento de la respuesta de la producción de aceituna a diferentes niveles de radiacion y su aplicación al diseño de los setos de olivo

Simulation of oil productivity and quality of N-S oriented olive hedgerow orchards in response to structure and interception of radiation

Simulations of oil yield and quality are presented for N–S oriented, hedgerow olive orchards of a range of structures (viz. canopy depth, canopy width, canopy slope and row spacing) using responses of yield and quality parameters to solar irradiance on canopy walls measured in a range of orchards, cv. Arbequina, in Spain. Results reveal that orchard yield of hedgerows of rectangular shape reaches a maximum when canopy depth equals alley width (row spacing−canopy width) and decreases at wider spacing, and/or with wider canopies, as the length of productive row decreases per unit area. Maximum yields for 4-m deep canopies were 2885 kg ha−1 at 1-m width and 5-m row spacing, 2400 kg ha−1 at 2-m width and 6-m spacing, and 2050 kg ha−1 at 3-m width and 7-m spacing. Illumination of canopies can be increased by applying slopes to form rhomboidal hedgerows. Substantial yield advantage can be achieved, especially for wide hedgerows, partly by closer row spacing that increases row length per unit area. By comparison, responses to latitude in the range 30–40◦ are small and do not warrant different row spacing. Oil quality parameters also respond to orchard structure. Responses are presented for oleic and palmitic acid, stability, and maturity index. Oleic acid content declines as alley spacing increases and is smaller, shallow than in wide, deep canopies. Palmitic acid content, stability, and maturity index increase with row alley spacing and are greater in narrow, shallow than in wide, deep canopies

Effect of root-promoting products in the propagation of organic olive (Olea europaea L.) nursery plant

Olive cuttings root well using synthetic auxin indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). However, European and North American regulations do not allow the use of synthetic products to obtain organic vegetative propagation materials. In this work, we evaluated different products that could replace IBA in the propagation of olive cv. Cornicabra leafy-stem cuttings. In 2003, six products with a known auxin effect were assessed: IBA, algae extract, brewer's yeast, a bed of sunflower seed, seaweed dry extract (Sm-6 OrganicoTM), and an extract of macerated seeds (Terrabal OrganicoTM). The basal end of cuttings was treated with one of these products and placed on a mist bed with basal temperature control. After 2 months, rooting percentage, number of roots per cutting, number of cuttings with callus formation, and number of cuttings with basal thickening were determined. No significant differences were found in rooting percentage or number of roots per cutting between IBA and Terrabal OrganicoTM and Sm-6 OrganicoTM. These last products had significantly higher percentage of rooted cuttings without callus formation than IBA. In 2004, a new trial was conducted in which seven treatments were evaluated: IBA applied for 7 s; Terrabal OrganicoTM applied for 1, 4, and 8 h; and Sm-6 OrganicoTM applied for 1, 4, and 8 h. No significant differences in rooting percentage or number of roots per cutting were observed between IBA and Terrabal OrganicoTM applied for 1 h, whereas all the Sm-6 OrganicoTM treatments had significantly lower rooting percentages than IBA. Both rooting percentage and the percentage of rooted cuttings without callus development decreased significantly as treatment duration with Terrabal OrganicoTM increased. Therefore, Terrabal OrganicoTM could produce a toxic effect on cuttings when treatment duration is increased. Thus, Terrabal OrganicoTM could be a valid alternative to IBA in the propagation of organic olive plants of cv. Cornicabra when applied to the basal end of cuttings for 1

Olive orchard productivity in the central area of Spain

La zona olivarera del centro de España tiene ciertas singularidades climáticas y edáficas. Éstas determinan diferencias en el comportamiento del olivo respecto a los olivares de Andalucía. En esta charla se ilustran estas diferencias y las implicaciones que tienen en el manejo del olivar. Finalmente se exponen los resultados de las líneas de trabajo que desarrolla la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid en olivar