児童は何故テレビを見るか : メディア行動を予測する変数について

1.児童は何故テレビを見るかについて,動因を頂点とする社会学的変数のハイラーキーを想定した。2.Rileys (1951)の研究は,かかる動因として空想志向と社会化された動因が存在し,それらは集団所属,準拠集団,両親との緊張関係等によって規定されることを示唆した。3.Schramm et al.(1961)は,欲求不満-攻撃仮説のもとに空想志向のメカニズムを追求し,その作用因として対人葛藤,社会規範が存在し,さらにそれらは,成熟,知能,所属する社会階層等によって規定されることをあきらかにした。Maccoby (1954)の研究もまた空想志向と欲求不満状態,社会階層とに連関のあることを示している。4.しかし児童の空想志向をただちに現実の問題からの逃避と考えるならば,異論がある。空想志向には積極的機能と消極的機能があり,年少児にとって空想活動は想像力を刺激し,代理的役割演技によって社会化を促進する作用因であるように思われる。それを証明する直接のデータはないが,間接的データととして,Schramm et al.,Himmelweit et al.,静岡市における調査資料の中からいくつかを引用した。5.家族集団と仲間集団は児童の選択視聴を規定する重要な変数であることは,わが国における調査においても,だいたいたしかめられた。また児童の視聴行動とくに視聴量を規定する重要な外的変数として,居住条件と両親の視聴統制とが考えられる。Schramm and his colleagues (1961) classified the reasons of children\u27s TV viewing into three categories such as passive pleasure (fantasy seeking), information gains (incidental learning) and social utility (purposeful learning), and stated that "the first of these bulks many times the size of the second, and the second is larger than the third,…." They made clear a mechanism of TV veiwing as a passive pleasure by an elaborate procedure of approach. It seems, however, there is a question upon their use of "passive pleasure" and "fantasy seeking" as a synonym. According to them, the passive pleasure means "taking part vicariously in thrill play" and "getting away from real-life problems and escaping real-life boredom", etc. Evidently there are many such cases in fantasy seeking. However, it seems that fantasy seeking of children is not essentially based on such an escapist mechanism, but rather a normal activity. Children before the teen age do not fully perceive social norms nor are they so strictly tied down by the norms imposed by their parents. They are in a period of unrestrained growth, and as they mature socially their range of interest is expanded and their information is enlarge. For the normal children in this period fantasy seeking helps to facilitate and amplify imagination. To them this seeking itself is a pleasent activity. Although there are not direct data on normal fantasy seeking, the following findings can be mentioned as indirect data. 1. According to the research by Schramm, et al., the sixth grade children spend more time in watching TV than the tenth grade children, although fewer children of the sixth grade have conflicts with their parents as compared to the tenth grade children. 2. Their study also revealed that younger children in teletown gained much information more than those in radio town. 3. Neither the Nuffield Study nor Shizuoka Study which examined children before or just as they reached teen age found any undesirable influence by television though it had been generally expected. If television is used frequently as a means to escape from real life and seek refuge in the world of fantasy, the passive or escapist tendency will be formed or reinforced. However, there has been no evidence which shows such a tendency in the above research findings. 4. In the second survey at Shizuoka we dichotomized children\u27s personality traits and family circumstances separately into two levels of good and bad, and examined relations between those levels and the range of TV-programs preference. As a result, we found children who had good attributes had a wider range of program preference. Such trend was significant among the fifth grade boys who were the heaviest TV viewers among the four sub-groups divided by sex and grade. 5. In the same second Shizuoka survey, 22 per cent of the fifth grade children (31 per cent of the seventh graders) were thinking that they spent too much time watching television. Of this number, 17 per cent (26 per cent of the seventh graders) were thinking that they couldn\u27t do other things because of too much time spent watching television. Also 60 per cent of the fifth grade children stated that they "watched programs even which we do not like", and 27 per cent of them gave as their reason that they "did not have other things to do". Although the number of these children is small as a whole there is an indication of the change from positive (active) to negative (passive) in the drives which lead them to TV viewing. It can be considered that the change from positive to negative in fantasy seeking occurs around the age of fifth grade. (A more detailed English report on this subject will be given in the Studies of Broadcasting 1967, Radio and TV Culture Research Insitute, NHK.

児童の認知型とテレビ視聴パターン

Hypothesis: The bulk of TV program content is entertainment, offering mainly passive pleasure. Although the program content varies the perceptive process in TV viewing has certain common characteristics in its structure. Children are required to perceive immediately the context developed on a TV screen with a global frame of reference but are not required to visually analyze the situations or reflect over them when the responses are uncertain. Therefore as a cumulative effect it can be assumed that TV might function to facilitate children\u27s cognitive tempo and increase their field-dependency, nonananalytic preference or impulsivity. Method: Three kinds of tests were administered to ninetyone boys and ninety-six girls in the fifth grade from the Tokyo suburban area to assess cognitive style and one questionnaire to measure three kinds of TV viewing pattern. The fifth grade children are selected because they are of the age which receives a relatively stable habit of TV exposure (Furu \u2771), and in addition they still have the possibility of modifying their cognitive style in the future. The three kinds of cognitive tests included a Group Embedded Figure Test (25 items) developed by H.A. Witkin, a Group Conceptual Style Test (24 items) developed by J. Kagan, and a Matching Familiar Figure Test (10 items with 6 variants of each item) developed by J. Kagan, which was further modified for the Japanese children (Furu et al., \u2775). Reliability coefficient of each test was r_=0.88 (Kuder-Richardson\u27s formula 20) on EFT. r_=0.89 (K-R\u27s formula 20) on CST, r_=0.92 (Cronbach\u27s α) on MFF-response time and r_=0.40 (Cronbach\u27s α) on MFF-errors respectively. TV viewing time and program content were obtained through a weekly diary designed to complete a time table and identify TV programs watched, which were later classified into three types by a factor analysis (direct varimax method). The first factor was named "entertainment for adults" (e.g., variety shows, detective dramas, etc.); the second factor, "information" (e.g., news, newsshows, etc.) and the third factor, "entertainment for children" (e.g., cartoons, puppets, etc.). Channel preference obtained by a questionnaire was classified into two types, NHK (the public TV station in Japan, having two VHFs) and commercial TV (five VHFs). Ten months later the panel study which measured the same cognitive style and channel preference was carried out in order to investigate the causality of those two variables. Results: Among girls TV-I (entertainment for adults) or TV-III (entertainment for children) showed a statistically significant correlation with EFT respectively (p<.05, p<.05); in other words, the more they watched entertainment TV programs, the more they increased their field dependency. TV-II (information) also correlated with the reflection-impulsivity (close to 5% level of significance) which was categorized by double median split techniques on MFFT. Stated another way, they showed a tendency towards reflective perception in proportion to increment of TV-II (information) exposure. (See 表 5, page 149: 表 means Table). Boys who indicated commercial TV preference were inclined to be field dependent or nonanalyitc type, in contrast to the NHK preference group. Girls with commercial TV preference showed a tendency toward impulsivity in contrast to NHK preference group (see 表 6; 男 means boys, 女 girls. page 149). Although there was no relation betweeen the amount of TV viewing time and any cognitive style, significant correlations among them were found if a certain third variable was held constant. For example, among the lower verbal intelligence boys the more they were exposed to TV as a whole, the more they increased their field dependency, while the higher verbal intelligence group showed the reverse tendency. (see 表 8; 言語性上 means high in verbal scale 1 and下 low; 差 difference, z is tested on the difference between two correlations, page 151). Among girls the higher social maladjustment group tended to be field dependent in proportion to increment of TV exposure time, while higher social adjustment group did not show such a trend (表 9b). Extroverted girls tended to delay their cognitive responses and showed a decrease in errors in MFFT according to the increment of TV exposure time; the converse was true for the introvert group(表 9d, e). Discussion: It was assumed that children\u27s TV viewing pattern would have a certain effect upon their cognitive styles. According to the results of present research, however, it seems more reasonable to interpret that any cognitive style children already possess determines their TV viewing patterns, since there were no TV programs which could help children to make analytic, field independent or reflective perception and which at the same time, aquire enough number of audience to the extent of influencing upon our findings. Secondly it is reasonable to consider some third variables mediating the relationship between cognitive style and channel preference. Among girls we found the intervening variable, the Family Communication Pattern correlated with both of these variables, that is, field independency-depencendency (EFT) and TV entertainment (TV-III or TV-I). See 図1^. (図 means figure, page 155). FCP is a scale which measured a certain parental attitude towards their children on a continuum between the polar of conciliatory or conservative and critical or progressive. The conservative family communication seems to lead their children to watch TV-III and also leads them to field dependency. Path analysis showed .the following results. When TV-III was taken as the criterion measure, the path FCP to TV-III had a significant B weight (.21, p<.05), but the path EFT to TV-III did not show the significence (図 2c; page 156). Next when EFT was taken as the criterion variable, the path FCP to EFT had a significant B weight (-.24, p<.05), but no significance on the path TV-III to EFT (図 2d). This implies that there would not be a causal relationship between EFT and TV-III, and FCP contributes to predict a part of total variance of EFT or TV-III. The coefficients of multiple correlation in this Figure are comparatively low (R=.25 to .32), which implies the existence of some third variable besides FCP, and also the question of FCP Test. It is also reasonable to assume the existence of some third variable intervening between channel preference and cognitive style. As far as the research data were concerned, however, FCP had little correlation with the either variable mentioned above. Therefore we connot refer to any third variable here. At any rate, the notion that cognitive style is an antecedent, and TV viewing pattern its consequence, or vice versa, cannot be concluded here. Another suggestion derived from this research is this correlation between the amount of TV viewing time and some cognitive styles were found when the subjects within a sub-sample were equalized in their attributes by adding one more attribute, that is, verbal ability or some personality aspect to sex difference. Particularly the studies on medium level such manipulation would be desirable. Prominent sex difference was found in our data. But as far as present research is concerned, it is impossible to refer to its cultural and social origin. The results of a panel study which was carried out ten months later showed the following cross-lagged-correlations as denoted in Figure (図3; page 158) (男 means boys, 女 girls, nummeral 5 or 6 indicate the school year, coefficients show zero order correlations.) A path analysis calculated from this cross-lagged-correlations indicated that field independency-dependency at the fifth grade did not contribute to the variance of channel preference at the sixth grade, nor was the converse true. However, in the case of reflection-impulsivity a path analysis showed that channel preference at the fifth grade could prescribe in part the total variance of reflection-impulsivity at the sixth grade. In this case the possible effect of the third variable can be considered but as far as present research data are concerned, such a variable was not found

児童のテレビ視聴パターンと関連する個人差及び家族関係の変数について

The purpose of this study is to examine to what extent the indices of individual difference and family relationship, taken in the study as independent variables, have on television viewing patterns, and the amounts of comic book and non-comic book exposure. Method: The Ss consisted of ninty 5th grade boys and ninty-six 5th grade girls from four elementary schools in a suburban area of Tokyo. The measures of two dependent variables TV viewing time and program content were obtained through a one week diary designed to complete a time table, and identify the names of the programs watched. The programs were later classified into three groups by a factor analysis. The first factor was named "general entertainment", the second, "informative", and the third, "animation". Also channel preference (NHK vs. commercial TV), and the amounts of comic book and non-comic book exposure as dependent variables were obtained by a questionnaire. The following were used as independent variables. Individual differerence Three kinds of cognitive styles (field independence-dependence, analytic-non analytic preference, impulsivity), intelligence, creativity, schoolwork, personality traits (emotional unstability, social maladjustment, general activity, extravart, dependency) and behavior ratings by teacher (attentiveness, activity, sociality, reflection). Family relationship Family communication pattern, maternal over-protectiveness and maternal emotional instability. Results and Discussion: Family relationship FCP (family communication pattern) was able to predict to some extent TVT (TV viewing time), TV-I (the amount of general entertainment program viewing), TV-III (the amount of animation type program viewing, only among girls) and channel preference. For girls, FCP was significantly related to TVT even when the other variables correlated with TVT were controlled. This indicates that the children, whose mother pay high regard to conciliatory human relation rather than critical-progressive attitude, spend more time in front of TV set, wacth more general entertainment type programs, and prefer commercial broadcast. And the girls have a tendency to watch more "animation" type programs. The facts are similar to the results of Chaffee et al.\u27s study on the relationship between FCP (socio-oriented communication vs. concept-oriented communication) and media use. Although maternal over-protectiveness and emotional instability were little related to any indices of TV viewing patterns, for girls they had significant negative correlation with the amount of book exposurre, and for boys maternal emotional instability had significant positive correlation with the amount of comic book exposure. In latter case, with the third variables contrlled, the relationship that the boys, whose mother were emotionable, read more cmics was showed. Individual difference Among girls, field dependence score had negative correlation with TV-I and V-III and positive correlation with book exposure. Both boys and girls, field dependent children had a tendency to turn on commercial broadcasting channels. Impulsive children tended to prefer commercial broadcast, which was remarkable for girls. Intelligence deviation value was related with channel preference and book exposure among girls. Highly intelligent girls prefered commercial broadcast and read more books. Among boys, creativity deviation value was related with TVT and comic book exposure. Highly creative boys watched less TV and read less comic books. The children, who had high schoolrecords for Natural Science, Mathematics, Japanese, and Social Studies, watched less general entertainment and animation type programs, and prefered NHK channels. Also they read more books and less comics. Emotionally instable children watched more animation type programs, and the girls read less books. Socially mal-adjusted children watched more animation type programs and read more comics. It is interesting that emotional instability and social mal-abjustment is related to comic book exposure. The children who had high ratings in attentiveness watched more informative type programs, less amimation type programs, prefered NHK TV, and read more books as opposed to comics. Reflective children had almost the same tendency, while active or socialable children read more comics

児童の認知型と関連する変数について

This is a study on variables related to the three kinds of cognitive styles: \u27field independency-dependency\u27 by the Witkin group, \u27reflection-impulsivity\u27 and \u27analytic-nonanalytic preference\u27 by the Kagan group. Their indices were the embedded figure test (EFT), the matching familiar figures test (MFFT) and the conceptual style test (CST). Method: The subjects were 90 boys and 96 girls of fifth grade at elementary schools in a suburb of Tokyo. Besides the three kinds of cognitive style tests, they were administered an intelligence test, a creativity test, a personality scale and a questionnaire to assess their dependency. A questionnaire was administered to their mother to measure family communication patterns (FCP; conservative-conciliatory vs. critical-progressive), maternal over-protectiveness, and emotional instability. Also, school record of a five-poind grading system was obtained and teachers were asked to rate the Ss\u27 behavior. Results and Discussion: The EFT score was correlated with the intelligence, the creativity test, the schoolwork and the teacher\u27s behavier rating. For girls, correlations of the personality scale and the FCP with the EFT were statistically significant. Visual analysis ability assessed by EFT could predict schoolwork independent of intelligence and creativity. And witkin\u27s theory that field indepaendent-dependent approach in visual perception functions also in the domain of personality was supported at least for girls. In comparison with the EFT, the MFFT bore weak relationship to the intelligence test, the creativity test and the schoolwork. Among girls, the MFFT was significantly correlated with the personality traits, to which was added support by the teacher\u27s behavior rating. This evidence indicates that the construct of reflection-impulsivity is useful to link the perceptual domain with the personality domain as well as that of field independence-dependence. The CST was little correlated with the variables taken in this study. In the data, prominent sex difference was found. It is only for girls that significant correletions between two cognitive styles-field independence and reflection-impulsivity- and personality traits were obtained. Concerning that the correlations of personality traits with EFT were significant only among girls, it is suggestive that Kagan and Kogan have tried to explain the sex difference in field independence score by \u27masculinity-feminity\u27 and \u27ego-strength\u27 Boys perfomed better than girls on the EFT measure of field independence, which are consistant with the results reported by many studies

家庭のテレビジョンに対する高校生の態度

Problem: An individual views a variety of TV programs. Special attitude towards TV in general, roughly speaking, may be formed based upon the daily accumulation of viewing experiences over a long period of time. The same thing can also be said of reading and other communication experiences. In order to determine its nature, it is possible to compare youths\u27 attitudes towards TV with other communication experiences (reading, movies, etc.). That is the purpose of this research. There were two reasons for doing this. (1) We have been making progress since last year on a research on the latent functions of TV for youth. We estab-lished as an exposure criterion for TV for this research, not the individual programs viewed but rather the "amount of TV exposure" or that plus "amount of printed media exposure" in combination (based upon Schramm, Lyle and Parker, 1961). The first step in our work was to compute the partial and multiple correlations between this criterion and the eleven independent variables involved. Therefore it was necessary to clarify the psychological nature of the criterion, either TV or printed media exposure. Schramm, Lyle, and Parker (1960) while paying full attention to the fact that between the content of the media and the audience\u27s response there are various individual differences, in general thought … and we hypothesised that … children\u27s TV viewing is an activity which fulfills their fantasy needs. This assumption was indirectly tested by comparison of leisure time activities of children in Canadian Teletown versus Radiotown. However no direct data was given. It therefore was decided to give a picture projection test to clarify this point. (2) As made clear by G.A. Steiner (1963), attitudes towards TV are ambivalent. It was also decided to try to verify this during our research. Method and Procedure: A total of 1,700 subjects, first year high school (10th grade) students from public high schools in the San-Tama area of Tokyo were selected by cluster sampling by school units. They were shown six pictures of communication experiences (movies, newspapers, comic books, TV and conversation) and given 45 short sentences expressing subjective attitudes of the people appearing in the pictures. They were asked to match the picture most appropriate to each sentence. Both pictures and sentences were arranged in random order. The 45 sentences were divided into three categories: favorable feelings (interest, relaxation, etc.), negative counterparts (waste of time, shame, etc.), and cognitive instrumental effects (information gain, enriched aesthetic experience, furnishing of topics of conversation, etc.). The sentences were constructed with reference to the research materials on the functions of mass media found in Schramm and others (1960), Waples, Berelson and Bradshaw (1940), Klapper (1960), Steiner (1963) and others. Results: 1. Attitudes towards TV are emotional and immediate reward seeking, while attitudes towards written materials are cognitive and delayed reward seeking. 2. Attitudes towards TV are emotional, however rather than being release of complicated emotions (wish-fulfillment, identi-fication with the hero, etc.) they were seen as seeking of simple diversion. The function of releasing complicated emotions is A Picture Projection Test on the Attitudes Youth Hold Toward Television 179 at times significant and more so among high users of prints in the case of reading. (38% of all reading is of novels.) 3. Attitudes towards TV are ambivalent. For example: 77% of those who replied "Regardless of who says what I will not stop (watching TV)." also stated "(TV) is a hindrance to studying." 60% of those who replied "(TV) furnishes topics for conversation." also said "Afterwards I will surely regret it." (Averge TV viewing was about two and a half hours per day.) 4. By combining three levels of amount of TV viewing with three levels of intelligence, nine sub-groups were formed for comparison with negative feelings towards TV. All sub-groups were about the same, the interaction between intelligence and amount of TV contact was not significant. 5. The higher the amount of TV viewing the greater the cognitive instrumental effects. There were no significant differences found regardless of intelligence considered. It is not clear, however, if this cognition was a result of the respondents actually thinking in that manner or if it was merely justification

認知型テスト日本版に関する一研究

We assumed that an accumulated exposure to TV and comics might have some effects on cognitive styles of children. Before confirming this assumption, we carried out a study to revise the. Japanese versions of GEFT (Group Embedded Figure Test), CST (Conceptual Style Test) and MFF (Matching Familiar Figures) which. were developed tentatively by the Tatsuno team, Tokyo Kyoiku University. The GEFT consists of twenty-five geometric figures which are employed from Witkin\u27s Test and slightly simplified and coloreliminated for children version. The CST including twenty-six familiar figures and the MFF including twenty-one familiar figures are both similar to Kagan\u27s Tests. Our principle to revise these Japanese versions and the findins by study are as follows. GEFT We rearranged the test items to make a spiral from due to their difficulties which were determined by a preliminary study, using eleven graduate students and eighteen children of: -a Sunday school. And we conducted the GEFT in the five classes of fifth graders at a public school located in the suburb of Tokyo metropolitan area, with the total number of two hundreds and five. The time limit of performance was seven minutes. The mean score gained from this test was 13.00 (SD=4.66), and. the range of scores was 1 to 25 (a girl gained the full mark) Table 1 shows the response pattern to each item. This analysis, was made with the date gathered from three classes out of the five, totaling one hundred and twenty two children. Response error ratios range from 1% to 56% and tend to form a spiral figure of difficulties, although they do not show regular distribution pattern. The number of non -responses tends to increase remarkably as items come later. The coefficient of reliability was rtt=0.88 (KuderRichardson\u27s formula 20). CST Responses to CST are supposed to be much influenced by the stimulus itself. We made a new Japanese version on the basis of following standards. (1) Three familiar figures in a set must be paired in the two ways, either \u27analytical vs. functional categorization\u27 or \u27analytical vs. inferential categorization\u27. (2) A functional categorization would be likely confined to a simple relation between two stimuli, for example, \u27a match box & cigarettes\u27, and a pair implying some fantastic relation would be avoided. (3) Similar parts of some two figures which induce an analytical categorization should be drawn less remarkedly. (4) An inferential categorization should be made with a mediating concept. The new Japanese version of CST including twenty-six items was conducted with total subjects. The instruction was the same as Kagan\u27s. The mean analytical score was 8.54 (SD=4.80) and the range was 1 to 20. The result of item analysis (Table 2) with the same three classes also showed that responses were somewhat inclined to non-analytical direction (the mean of analytical responses by item was 35%, and the range was 3% to 70%). It is, however, better than the other case, because the test has been constructed to assess a tendency of analytical perception and a ceiling effect will not likely occur. The coefficient of reliability was r_=. 89 (Kuder-Richardson\u27s formula 20). MFF We selected arbitrarily ten items from the Japanese version, and added the Kagan\u27s twelve items to those. Then we split those twenty-two items into two parts, A & B. After a preliminary study which was conducted with two groups of children assigned respectively to the form A or B, we have adopted twelve items out of the both forms on the basis of the following criteria: to eliminate any item showing (1) too high response time mean, (2) almost non-errors at the first response, and (3) error tendency to concentrate in a few alternatives. We conducted the revised version of MFF with the two classes out of the five, totaling eighty boys and girls. The mean response time was 12.3 sec. (SD=6.4) and the range was 4.1 sec. to 37.4 Table 3 shows the means of the first response time by each item. Table 4 shows the frequency distributions of errors on alternatives by each item. Those which have too low error frequencies would not function as an alternative, while they would do as a facilitating response agent. From this point of view, almost all items seem to have substantially four alternatives at least. We can find that there is no tendency to indicate some sort of saturation, because. the error by item does not increase as it become later (see the right column of Table 4). We can find, however, a response bias stemming from the arrangement of alternatives (Figure 1). The alternatives of no. 2 and no. 5 arranged at the middle have more errors than those at the left or the right, and alternatives on the first line have more errors than those on the second line. This sort of response bias, however, would function to differentiate responses on the two dimensions of reflection and impulsivity. It is better to shorten performance time of the test without lowering reliability. We made a correlation matrix of respnse time by item, the total respose time, accumulated errors at each response step, and the total error. Then we found that all correlations were statistically significant at the 5% level. The association between the total response time and total error showed r=-.54. We found also a correlation between total error and accumulated error at the third response step was. 99, in other words, 98% of the total error variance can be explained by the errors at the third response step. Besides, response time to any item had significant correlations with the errors at the third step. Therefore even if we stop responding at third step, the reliability of MFF would not be changed. Relations among the Three Cognitive Style Tests. Any correlation among the three conitive style tests was not statistically significant (Table 7). This means they include independent factors

Low back pain precedes the development of new knee pain in the elderly population; A novel predictive score from a longitudinal cohort study

Background: To investigate the association between knee pain and risk factors including low back pain and to develop a score to predict new knee pain in an older population, using population-based longitudinal cohort data. Methods: We collected a questionnaire on self-reported knee pain and demographic data in a systematic manner from community residents aged ≥ 50 years twice, at baseline, and after 5 years. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to investigate the association between knee pain and risk factors and to build a predictive model that would enable calculation of the risk of the development of knee pain within 5 years. The model is presented in the form of score charts. Results: A total of 5932 residents aged ≥ 50 years from the cohort of 9764 that completed the first questionnaire were enrolled in the second survey. After exclusions, paired data for the two time points an average of 5.4 years apart were analyzed for 4638 participants. Multivariate analyses showed older age, female sex, higher BMI, weight increase, lower mental health score, and higher back pain/disability score were independent risk factors for knee pain. The predictive score comprised six factors: age, sex, BMI, weight increase, mental health, and low back pain/disability. The risk of developing knee pain ranged from 11.0 to 63.2% depending on the total score. Conclusion: This study demonstrated a significant association between knee and low back pain/disability along with other risk factors. The score we developed can be used to identify a population without any imaging modality who are at high risk of developing knee pain